Semantics of a Word and Contextual Relations • • TREE the mental image the sound aspect the content the sign the symbol Meaning Signified vs. Signifier The semantic triangle Ogden&Richards lLexeme •- the bearer of meaning, a unit of vocabulary – the lexical item •- it can have semantic representation in several words, e.g. nut, head lSememe •- the meaning of the lexeme, a set of semantic elements (semes) lSemantic field •- a named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other lDenotative meaning •- an objective link between a lexeme (a reflection of reality in the language) and the reality •- referential or cognitive meaning: dog – canine quadruped • lConnotative meaning •- an equivalent of the emotional aspect •- represents the personal dimension, dog – helper, friend •e.g. bus – denotation x connotation Componential analysis - we can analyse the meaning of words by single components – series os semes - each seme is allocated a dichotomic value (present/non-present) - words organized in semantic fields have certain features in common woman +human, –male, +adult man +human, +male, +adult girl +human, –male, –adult boy +human, +male, –adult Diagrammatic representation Diagrammatic representation lsyntagmatic level - horizontal dimension in which we sense the relationship between lexemes in a sequence. We know intuitively which words occure together. • lparadigmatic level – vertical dimension in which one lexeme can be substituted by another Lexical structure (Ferdinand de Saussure) Example: Alice’s hat is green. •People Clothing to be Color •Alice’s hat is green. •My coat isn’t yellow. •The vicar’s pyjamas were pink. • Syntagmatic (sequence) lEvery aspect of the meaning of a word is reflected in a pattern of semantic normality (and abnormality) in grammatically appropriate contexts. • lContextual relations = the full set of normality relations which a lexical item contracts with all possible contexts. • lThe meaning of a word = a pattern of affinities and disaffinities with all the other words in the language with which it is capable of contrasting semantic relations. Syntagmatic Affinity •=established by a normal association in an utterance • lSyntagmatic affinity: dog x barked • The dog barked. = normal association • lSyntagmatic disaffinity: •The lions were chirruping. = abnormal Paradigmatic affinity lA semantic affinity between two grammatically identical words is the greater the more compatible their patterns of syntagmatic normality. • le. g. dog and cat share far more normal and abnormal contexts than dog and lamp-post: • •Arthur fed the dog/ cat/ lamp-post. •The dog/ cat/ lamp-post ran away. •We painted the dog/ cat/ lamp-post red. Semantic Trait lThe meaning of a word can be seen as made up of the meanings of other words. A particular word-meaning which participates in this way in the meaning of another word is termed a semantic trait of the second word. lStatues (degrees and modes of participation) of semantic traits: Criterial Expected Possible Unexpected Excluded Criterial and Excluded Traits lDiagnosed by means of entailment relations between sentences. le.g. “animal” = criterial trait of dog because It’s a dog entails It’s an animal. le. g. “fish” = excluded trait of dog because It’s a dog entails It’s not a fish. Expected, Possible and Unexpected Traits lThe but-test shows the normality or abnormality of sentences of the form A, but B. • le.g. consider the status of “can bark” as a trait of dog: •It’s a dog does not entail It can bark. = it is not a criterial trait but an expected trait. • •It’s a dog, but it can bark. (odd) •It’s a dog, but it can’t bark. (normal) lExpressive paradox = the expressive meaning carried by but is inappropriately ordered. • le.g. It’s a dog, but it can sing. • It’s a dog, but it can’t sing. • lA possible trait is signalled when sentences exhibit expressive paradox. • le.g. It’s a dog, but it is brown. • It’s a dog, but it isn’t brown. Distinction within Expected Status l“adapted for flight” as a trait of bird: •It’s a bird does not entail It is adapted for flight. (e.g. kiwi) l“posesses four legs” as a trait of dog: •It’s a dog does not entail It has four legs. •- dog without four legs is imperfect, ill-formed •- birds not adapted for flight are atypical • lCanonical traits – semantic traits whose absence is regarded as a defect lImplication – the meaning which a speaker or writer intends but does not communicate directly. A listener is able to deduce or infer the intended meaning from what has been uttered. •e.g. “A bus!” lAmbiguity - occurs when a language element has more than one meaning. If the ambiguity is in a single word it is lexical ambiguity. If in a sentence or clause, it isgrammatical or structural ambiguity •e.g. - lexical – gay society • - structural - headlines – CHURCHILL FLIES BACK TO FRONT • Semantic relations lSynonymy – boy, lad lAntonymy – truth, lie lPolysemy – nut, bear lHomonymy - bank, fair, toast lHomophony – son x sun, tale x tail, to spring x spring lHomography – She can tear his arguments like a piece of cloth. X Her tear has no effect on him. lHyponymy – cat is a hyponym of animal lHyperonymy – animal is a hyperonym of cat •e.g. hyponym of: season • hyperonym of: rose, daffodil, tulip Thank you for your attention!