Word order choices
GRAMMAR BITES in this chapter
..*. .r,sr-si ; .*,,-. ."-1 P" - . - z ~ s ~ = d n a u r . i n i r ~ r e r ~ ~ % ~ ~ ~me-*--*r -*i--> . ~ r i
A fronting and inversion
Unmarked word order (i.e. normal word order)
Different types of fronting and their uses across registers
> Different types of inversion and the uses of inversion across registers
%-I.w -3 ml"(w.*n- % ~ - * ~ ( " . . L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ^ O I I ^ O I I % - " ~
r~xistentialthere clauses
There in existential clauses
Subjects, verbs, and adverbials in existential clauses
The function of existential there clauses
Types of dislocation
Types and frequency of clefts
>Word order choices after the verb: the placement of objects
Summary of syntactic choices in conversation and academic prose
398 Chapter 12: Word order choices
-.a Introduction
Thebasic word order of English is subject-verb-object (SVO),as you can see in a
sentence such as:
Myrna[sl the best cucumber saladrol. (cow)
Myrna, the subject, precedes the verb makes, which precedes the object the best
cucumber salad. However, different contexts may make it preferable to put
elements of the clause in different places. For example, a speaker who wants to
emphasize that Myrna, not someone else, makes the best cucumber salad might
say:
It's Myrna who makes the best cucumber salad.
This type of construction is called clefting (12.12). Or a speaker who is
discussing a variety of cucumber salads might start with the cucumber salad and
say:
The best cucumber salad is made by Myrna.
This type of construction is the passive (discussed fully in 6.6-8). These are just
two examples of ways to reorder clause elements.
In the present chapter, we discuss six grammatical devices to manipulate
word order in clauses: fronting, inversion of subjects and verbs, existential there
clauses, dislocation, clefting, and variations in the ordering of objects. Some of
these devices involve simply moving elements to different positions. Others
require changing the clause in more complicatedways, such as changing the verb
to passive voice.
The techniques that we discuss here are used in a variety of ways to make a
clause better fit its context. Four major discourse factors are important in
understanding the grammatical choices that influence word order:
information flow: given v. new information
focus and emphasis, including end-focus and double focus
contrast
weight, including end-weight and balance of weight.
Because these factors are so important, we introduce them first in this chapter.
However, these concepts do not explain all the reasons for word order changes.
For example, irony and surprise may also be important. Also, in some registers,
such as fiction, writers may simply want to make varied use of language.
12.1.1 Information flow
If we look at a clause in its discourse context, some elements refer back to
information that is familiar due to the preceding discourse-i.e. given
information-and other elements present new information. The typical word
order in English is to start with given information and move to new. Thus, in the
following example clause, the person Mr Summers and the house have already
been introduced.
1 Inside the home Mr Summers found a family of cats shut in the bathroom.
(NEWS)
The clause is first grounded in the situation that has already been mentionedthe
house and Mr Summers. Then the communication advances with the
information about what Mr Summers found. This typical ordering of
information-from given to new-is the information-flow principle.
Given-new order of information contributes to the cohesion of a text. The
given information is usually related to its previous mention, and the new
information is often taken up in the following discourse. This order of
information makes it easier for receivers to understand, because the clause starts
with something that is familiar.
However, there are exceptions to the information-flow principle. For
example, the needs of focus and emphasis, discussed in the next section, may be
stronger than the need to follow the information-flow principle.
12.1.2 FOCUSand emphasis
In any clause,there is usually at least one point of focus. This point receives some
prominence in the clause. It is apparent in speech because the strongest stress or
intonation peak will occur at this point. Typically, the focus occurs naturally on
the last lexical item in the clause (e.g. the bathroom in 1 above). The general
principle governing focus is therefore known as the principle of end-focus.
When the information-flow principle is being followed, new information, which
occurs at the end of the clause, will be the focus.
However, there is another potential point of focus in a clause: the beginning.
Many of the devices covered in this chapter increase the focus given to the
beginning of the clause by starting with an element other than the subject. The
result is a clause with double focus (or even more than two points of focus). For
example, in 1 an adverbial occurs first. That adverbial-Inside the house, and
more specificallythe lexical item house-receives its own focus, in addition to the
focus on in the bathroom.
When an initial element is the point of focus, it gains prominence. A
complement of the verb in initial position is intensified, much as it is intensified
by an adverb like very:
Brilliant that was! (cow)
Here brilliant is intensified by being in initial focused position, before the
subject.The meaning is similar to the speaker saying Thatwas absolutelybrilliant!
The marked word order-with the complement first-gives intensification to the
complement (brilliant).
12.1.3 Contrast
Contrast occurs when the focused part is highlighted to show its difference from
another element:
It's not the bikers - it's the other vehicle that's on the road. (cowt)
Here the other vehicle is focused and contrasted with the bikers in the preceding
clause in a parallel structure. The manipulation of the sentence structure shows
contrast just as the coordinator but and the linking adverb however do. The
speaker, for instance, could have said: The bikers are not a problem. However, the
other vehicle is.
400 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE 4
12.1.4 Weight
Elements in a clause are frequently of different size and complexity, relating to
their weight. For instance, a noun phrase consisting of a head noun with long
premodifiers and postmodifiers is much 'heavier' than a noun phrase consisting
of a single pronoun. The preferred distribution of elements in the clause is called
the principle of end-weight:long and complex (i.e. heavier) elements are placed
towards the end of the clause. This placement helps hearers and readers to follow
the message more easily,because they do not have to keep in their mind complex
information from the beginning of the clause as they reach the end of the clause
(compare the principle of real-time processing in 13.2.5). Many heavy elements
also contain a large amount of new information. The information-flow principle
and end-weight principle therefore often reinforce one another.
Sometimes heavy elements are at the beginning of sentences. As described
above in 12.1.2, these heavy elements then gain some prominence and they can
give a clause more than one point of focus-at the end and at the beginning.
The term 'word order' is used to refer to the order of elements in a clause:
subject, verb, object, predicative, and adverbial.
The unmarked word order in English (i.e. clauses that contain the normal
word order) has the following characteristics:
The subject normally precedes the verb, and the verb normally precedes its
complements: S+V, S+V+A, S+V+SP, S+V+DO, S+V+Prep+PO,
etc.
Independent interrogative clauses normally have subject-operator inversion
(e.g. Are you sure?).
All clause elements realized by wh-words are regularly placed in initial
position. For example: I don't know [whatyou want]. (co~vt).(Even though
what is the object in the dependent clause (you want what), it is placed before
the subjectyou.)
Phrases are normally continuous. This means that a phrase is not usually
broken up by another element.
12.3 Fronting
Fronting means placing in initial position a clause element which is normally
found after the verb. Fronting is relativelyrare in English, and it is almost always
in declarative main clauses (except for the fronting of wh-words mentioned in
the last section). However, several kinds of fronting are possible, summarized in
Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Types of fronting
tYPe examples description
fronted object 1 This Ido not
understand. (~~cr)
2 Why he came this way I
will probably never know.
(FICT)
fronted nominals Whether Nancy was there
other than object or not, she could not be
certain. (FICT)
fronted
predicatives
1 Far more serious were
the severe head injuries.
(NEWS)
2 The larger the base the
easier it will be to perform
the action. (ncm)
3 So preoccupied was she
that she was unaware that
Diana was standing in the
doorway. (FICT~)
fronted non-finite 1Ihave said he would
constructions come down and come
down he did. (FICT)
2 Waiting below was
Michael Sams. (NEWS)
3 Enclosedis a card for
our permanent signature
file. (FICT~)
fronting in 1 Try as she might to
dependent clauses make it otherwise <. ..>
that use as or (FICT~)
though 2 <. ..> unsuccessful
though they have been in
their proposals o(ACAD~)
The object of the clause is in initial
position. Many different structures
occur as fronted objects, such as
nouns. pronouns (I), and
complement clauses (2).
A nominal structure is in initial
position, such as the complement to
the adjective certain in the example
here (She could not be certain
whether Nancy was there or not).
A subject predicative is in initial
position. Many structures can occur
as fronted predicatives. Special cases
include proportion clauses with the
(2)and degree clauses with so ...
that (3). Some fronted predicatives
occur with inversion (1, 3).
An infinitive (I), ing-participle (2) or
ed-participle (3) is in initial position.
Its complements are fronted with it
(e.g. down in come down). Some
fronted non-finite predicatesoccur
with inversion (2, 3).
Dependent clauses that use the
subordinator as (1)or though (2)
sometimes have an element placed
before the subordinator. (1)
illustrates fronting of a main verb
and (2) illustrates fronting of a
predicative.
12.3.1 Fronted objects and other nominals
Noun phrases as fronted objects:
1 Sandy moved ahead. 'This1do not understand,' he said. (FICT)
2 Bess was satisfied with her hair, but herfreckles she regarded as a great
and unmerited afliction. (FICT)
3 Some things you forget. Other things you never do. (FICT)
Complement clauses as fronted objects:
4 What it was that changed this conclusion, I don't remember. (FICT)
402 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE A
5 Why he came this way I will probably never know. (FICT)
6 What they can do, we can do. (FICT)
7 Whether Nancy was there or not, she could not be certain. (FICT)
Nominals with other syntactic roles (e.g. here a subject predicative):
8 'Pretty strange, huh? That it is. I nod sadly. (FICT)
As these examples show, most occurrences of fronting put focus on both the
beginning and ending of the clause. For example, in 1, this gains emphasis from
its initial placement, rather than the unmarked word order I understand this. At
the same time, understand has its own focus because it is the last element in the
clause. In addition, many instances of fronting facilitate the information-flow
principle: the fronted element refers to given information. This is particularly
obvious with the fronted pronouns in 1 and 8. Finally, several fronted objects
show contrasts. For example, her freckles are contrasted with her hair in 2, other
things are contrasted with some things in 3, and they with we in 6.
12.3.2 Fronted predicatives
Many clauseswith fronted predicativeshave subject-verb inversion, but some do
not. Predicativefronting with subject-verb inversion can occur with comparative
and superlativeforms. In the following examples, underlining signals the subject,
here highlighted as new information by the inversion:
1 The hens in the next garden: their droppings are very good dressing. Best of
all, though, are the cattle, especially when they are fed on those oilcakes.
(FICT)
2 Far more serious were the severe head injuries; in particular a bruising of
the brain. (NEWS)
Usually, the predicatives which have been fronted make a comparison with some
element in the preceding discourse, and form a cohesive link. In 1, for example,
the cattle are being compared with the hens. The cohesive link is also sometimes
made with the words also and such:
3 Under stress, Sammler believed, the whole faltered, and parts (follicles,for
instance) became conspicuous. Such at least was his observation. (FICT)
4 Also popular for travelling are quilted, overblown pseudo-ski jackets in
pink or blue that look like duvets rampant. (NEWS)
The organization of these examples is consistent with the information-flow
principle. In 3, for example, such refers to Sammler's beliefs mentioned in the
previous sentence.
There are two special cases of predicative fronting. The first contains
combinations of proportion clauses (see 11.9.2) marked by pairs of phrases with
the:
5 The more general the domain, the more general, selective and tentative
are the statements about its style. (ACAD)<with inversion>
6 The larger the base the easier @ will be to perform the action. (ACAD)
<without inversion>
Heavier subjects, as in 5, often have subject-verb inversion. Clauses with a
subject pronoun, as in 6, often do not have inversion.
The second special type of predicative fronting concerns adjectives
premodified by so and followed by a that-clause of degree. For example:
So preoccupied was & at this moment, she was unaware that Diana was
standing in the arched doorway to the sitting room. (FICT)
<compare: She was so preoccupied at this moment that she was
unaware. ..>
So ruthless was the IRA in its all-out onslaught against the police and the
Army, it didn't care who got in its way. (NEWS)
<compare: The IRA was so ruthless in its all-out onslaught that it didn't
care who got in its way.>
In these sentences, the adjective and intensifier so are fronted, but the that
comparative clause is not fronted.
When the subject is an unstressed pronoun, predicatives can still be fronted
but subject-verb inversion does not take place:
7 Right you are! (cow)
8 Bloody amazing & was! (cow) <note: bloody is a taboo word and may be
offensive to some people>
9 Peter Harronson, & said he was called. (FICT)
Fronting has an intensifying effect, often strengthened by the choice of words
(e.g. bloody amazing) or by emphatic stresswhen spoken. The fronted material is
new rather than old, which makes it a marked choice with respect to the
information-flow principle. In some cases, the initial predicative highlights the
main purpose of the utterance; for example, in 9, the purpose is to establish the
person's name. In 9 you can also see that the fronted predicative can be an object
predicative, and can actuallybelong to an embedded clause (signaledby []in: He
said [he was called Peter Harronson]).
12.3.3 Fronted non-finite constructions
There are three major types of fronted non-finite constructions, corresponding
to the three types of non-finite verb forms: a bare infinitive, an ing-participle,
and an ed-participle.
In these constructions, a non-finite verb and its complements are fronted. The
subject and an auxiliary verb follow in their normal position. Emphatic do is
used if there is no other auxiliary verb (focused elements are underlined):
1 I had said he would come down and come down he a.(FICT)
2 But, as he said, it had to be borne, and bear it he a.(FICT~)
As these examples show, fronted bare infinitives are often associated with the
echo of a previous verb. The echo is not providing new information, so the
fronting serves the information-flow principle and cohesion. However, the
fronting also emphasizes the repeated element. Compare 2 above with the
unmarked word order and typical ellipsis (marked with A) of the repeated
element in 3:
3 I had said he would come down and he did A.
Thus, the fronted infinitive predicate gives a double focus-the fronted element
and the auxiliary at the end of the clause. The same is true for fronted infinitive
constructions that do not echo a previous verb:
4 Work I must, and for money. (FICT)
404 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE A
In 4, both work and must are focused elements.
Fronted ed- and ing-constructions usually occur with exceptionally long subjects.
Subject-verb inversion accompanies fronted ed- and ing-constructions, so the
heavy subjects (underlined below) are moved to clause-final position:
5 Nothing on the walls, with one exception: tacked over the bed was 41
yellowed, deckel-edged photograph. (FICT~)
6 Enclosed is a card for our permanent signature file which we request you to
sign and return to us. (FICT)
7 Billy beamed lovingly at a bright lavenderfarmhouse that had been
spattered with machine-gun bullets. Standing in its cock-eyed doorway
was a German colonel. (FICT)
8 The money was left on the parapet of a bridge carrying the track over an
old dismantled railway line. Waiting below was Michael Sums, who had
left a tray on the bridge parapet for the money. (NEWS)
The order of the elements in these clauses agrees with the information-flow and
end-weight principles. There is generally a reference to the preceding context
early in the structures, and new information is introduced in the subject, which
occurs at the end of the clause. The subjects are often indefinite noun phrases:
the use of a/an shows their status as new information (a photograph, a card, a
colonel). The fronted items contain definite noun phrases (thebed) and pronouns
(it,its),showing their status as given information.
12.3.4 Fronting in dependent clauses
In dependent clauses, fronting occurs only with the subordinators as and though.
For example (the dependent clause is shown in [I):
1 [Tty as they &, no one close to Frankie Howerd could ever improve his
image. NEWS^)
2 The proponents of more traditional solutions to the problem of universals,
[unsuccessful though they have been in their own proposals], have made
troublefor the solution in terms of individual properties. (ACAD~)
Fronting the items in bold puts them in a conspicuous position before the
subordinators and clearly emphasizes them. Notice that these are clauses of
concession, and involve some contrast. In 2, for example, unsuccessful is
contrasted with the fact that they have still made trouble. You can also see that
the end-focus falls on the underlined constituents.
12.3.5 Fronting in exclamations
Exclamative clauses with a wh-element (e-g. How good she is!) have obligatory
fronting, since the wh-element has to occur in pre-subject position. However,
there are other types of exclamations where fronting is optional. Such can be
used like what in exclamations:
Such a gift he had for gesture. He looked like a king in exile. (FICT)
<compare: What a gifi he had for gesture; and normal order: He had such
a gift. ..>
And she thought: Such a sure hand my son has with people. (FICT)
<compare: What a sure hand my son has lyith people.>
In some cases, the exclamatoryeffect of the fronting is apparent from the use of
exclamation marks:
Charming you are! (FICT)
A fine time you picked to wake up! Where were you in my hour of need?
(FICT)
Fronting in exclamations is often used with irony or sarcasm, as it is in these
examples.
P12.3.6 The use of fronting across registers
Fronting is relatively rare in all registers, although this device is used more in
fiction and academicprose than conversation or news. Further, different types of
fronting are preferred in each register.
In academic prose, the most common form is predicative fronting, which
aids cohesion by linking clauses:
In the Peruvian case study that follows, the degree to which marketwomen
are independent petty commodity traders or are undergoing
proletarianization is problematic. Also problematic is the degree to which
gender may be playing a part in the proletarianization process. (ACAD)
The fronting ties the sentences together through repetition (note the repetition
of problematic above).
Conversation and fiction more commonly use fronting of objects. These
elements are fronted for focus rather than for cohesion:
A: What actually does the price include?
B: That I couldn't tell you. (co~vt)
'No wet beds. That I won't stand.' (FICT)
Whether it would fire after being in the river, I can't say. (FICT)
In fiction, where varied sentence structure and stylistic effect are especially
valued, fronting occurs more frequently than in conversation.
Although fronting is relatively rare, it is an important option for focus and
cohesion; its rarity makes these effects even more conspicuous when they do
occur.
12.4 Inversion
In inversion, the verb phrase or the operator comes before the subject. There are
two main types of inversion (the subject is underlined):
subject-verb inversionor full inversion: the subject is preceded by the entire
verb phrase:
Best of all would be to get a job in Wellingham. (FICT~)
subject-operator inversion or partial inversion: the subject is preceded only
by the operator rather than by the main verb or full verb phrase:
Not before in our history have so many strong influences united to produce
so large a disaster. (NEWS)
406 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE A
In this example,the main verb is united but only the auxiliaryverb have is placed
before the subject. If no other operator is present, auxiliary do is inserted.
Never again did I think of disobedience. (FICT~)
In general, inversion serves the following discourse functions:
cohesion and information flow (especiallysubject-verb inversion)
intensification (especiallysubject-operator inversion)
placement of focus (both kinds of inversion)
end-weight (both kinds of inversion).
The different types of inversion are summarized in Table 12.2 and explained
below.
Table 12.2 Types of inversion
type of inversion examples
conditions commonly
associated with this inversion
subject-verb On one long wall hung a row initial adverbial (on one long
of van Goghs. (FICT~) wall)
short intransitive verbs (hung)
subject-operator 1 On no account must he
strain. (CONV)
2 So badly was he affected
that he had to be taught to
speak again. (NEWS)
3 She hadn't known much
about life, nor had he. (FICT)
subject-verb and So be it. (FICT~)
subject-operator in Long May She Reign! (NEWS)
formulaic use
long subjects (a row of van
Goghs).
negative opening elements (1
on no account)
degree expressions with so or
such (2 so badly)
the linking words so, nor,
neither (3 nor)
archaic and formal expressions
12.4.1 Subject-verb inversion
Subject-verb inversion is most often found with an initial adverbial, a short
intransitive or copular verb phrase, and a long subject that introduces new
information.
Initial place and time adverbials with subject-verb inversion are especially
common.
Theyfound an extension to the drawing room with thigh-high cannabis
plants growing in polythene bagsfull of compost. Nearby was a 400-squareyard
warehouse with more plants flourishing in conditions controlled by
artificial lighting and automatic watering systems. (NEWS)
For a moment nothing happened. Then came voices all shouting together.
(FICT)
First came the scouts, clever, graceful, quiet. They had rifles. Next came the
antitank gunner. (FICT)
Usually these adverbials have a cohesive function. They are often tied to previous
discourse, and they often show how a scene unfolds, either in physical space or
through time. Here and there, defining a place relative to the speaker, are often
found with inversion:
1 Here comes the first question. (FICT)
2 There's the dog. Call the dog. (cow)
(Notice that the place adverb there in 2 is different from existential there,
explained in 12.5-10).
In academic prose, there is less need for description and time narration, but
other initial adverbials are sometimes used with inversion. They usually have a
clear cohesive function. For example:
Formaldehyde may be generated in various ways. Among these is heating a
solution of <...> (ACAD~)
Sometimes an adverbial particle of direction is used with inversion:
In came Jasper, smilingjauntily, stepping like a dancer. (FICT)
Billy opened his eye, and out came a deep, resonant tone. (FICT)
This type of inversion is used in dramatic narration, to emphasize a sudden
happening.
B S ~ O Aint~ansCtivelcopuiarverb phiak, and fong subjects
You can see in the above examples that most of these verb phrases are short,
consisting of either a copular or an intransitive main verb (e.g. came, is, was). As
the following examples show, more complex verb phrases are possible, but here
the delayed subject is heavier than the verb, thus following the principle of end-
weight:
Among the sports will be athletics, badminton, basketball, <...>. (NEWST)
Also noted will have been the 800 metres run by under-15 Claire Duncan
at Derby and the under-17 100 metres hurdling of Jon Haslam (Liverpool)
which also gained Northern silver. (NEWS)
Subject-verb inversion does not occur with a lightweight pronoun as subject:
full noun phrase: Then came the turn in^ point of the match. (NEWS)
pronoun: Then & came again like a whiplash. (FICT)<but not: *Then came
it.>
12.4.2 Subject-operator inversion
In subject-operator inversion, only the operator (see 8.7), rather than the whole
verb phrase, is placed before the subject. Apart from its regular use in forming
questions, subject-operator inversion occurs under special conditions:
A fij?ga&veandiestrictiveopining eiemeriii
Subject-operator inversion is found after initial negative expressions such as:
neither, nor, never, nowhere, on no condition, not only, hardly, no sooner, rarely,
scarcely, seldom, little, less, only. (Notice that little, less, and only are negative in
408 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMARBITE A
meaning.) The negative 'trigger' for inversion is usually an adverbial or a
coordinating conjunction. In the following examples, the trigger element is
underlined and the operator is marked in bold:
1 A: I haven't got a copy of club rules.
B: Nor have I. (cow)
2 And she said, you know, on no account must he strain. (cow)
3 Rarely are all the constraints on shape, function and manufacturing clearly
defined at the commencement of the activity. Even less are they understood
and their effect, one on another, recognized by the designer. (ACAD)
Because of the inversion, the force of the negative element is intensified.Example
3 intensifies the force further, through use of parallel structures in the two
sentences.
The expression no way is often found in colloquial language, triggering
inversion:
4 Oh no way do I want to take that. (cow)
5 And if the case went to trial, there wasn't a damn thing Katheryn could do
to stop them. And no way could she get Sarah to understand that. (FICT)
In 4, notice that dummy do is used as the operator, where do would be used in
ordinary not negation: I don't want to take that (see 8.8.1).
Notice also that negative elements trigger subject-operator inversion only
when they have scope over the entire clause (see negative scope in 8.8.9).
Contrast 6 and 7:
6 In no time at all the hotels would be jammed to the doors. (FICT)
7 At no time did he indicate he couldn't cope. (NEWS)
In 6, in no time is a time adverbialroughly meaning 'very soon'; it does not affect
the positive nature of the clause, and thus subject-operator inversion is not
possible. But in 7, at no time means that the entire clause is negative. A
paraphrase would be: He never indicated that he couldn't cope. Thus, the opening
element of 7 (but not 6) has scope over the entire clause. Correspondinglyonly 7
has subject-operator inversion.
*.q-s-*-,mas; y,r,r-ig. m y *mmnA-w n- +1p4nrs%..--.cQI- L U B
*%egreeexpressions w w s o and such, nerffier and nor
Subject-operator inversion occurs in clauses that begin with the degree adverb so
followed by an adjective or adverb:
So badly was he affected that he had to be taught to speak again. (NEWS)
Similar constructions occur with such ... that:
&& is the gravity of the situation that it has already sparked an
international incident. (NEWS)
Inversion can occur after initial so when it is used as a pro-form pointing back to
the predicate of a preceding clause:
A: We used to watch that on T.V.
B: Yes, so did I. (cow) <= and I did, too>
As infections increased in women, so did infections in their babies. (NEWS)
The initial so in these examples stands for given information and has a cohesive
effect. The subject, containing the main new communicative point of the clause,
is placed in the end-focus position after the verb.
inversionClauses
with initial nor and neither express parallelism with a preceding
negative clause. Again the inversion pattern has a cohesive effect, as the linking
word refers back to given information:
She hadn't known much about life, nor had he. (ma)
The generalization's truth, if it is true, is not affected by how we count
things in question, and neither is its falsehood if it isfalse. (ACAD)
With nor and neither, subject-operator inversion is mandatory.
There are a few cases of inversionwith formulaicexpressions.Typically,these are
felt to be archaic expressions with literary overtones.
Subjunctiveverb forms (8.17) express a strong wish:
If you want to throw your life away, so & it, it is your life, not mine. (FICT)
'I, Charles Seymour, do swear that I will befaithful, <. ..> so help me
God.' (FICT~)
Inversion combined with a subjunctive verb form (be, help) gives these
expressions a solemn tone.
Clauses with inversion opening with the auxiliary may also express a strong
wish:
May God forgive you your blasphemy, Pilot. Ye-s. May he forgive you and
open your eyes. (FICT)
The XJS may be an ageing leviathan but it is still a unique car. Long may
it be so! (NEWS)
12.4.3 Inversion in dependent clauses
Although inversion is most common in independent clauses, it also occurs in
dependent clauses.
Adverbials and negatives that begin a dependent clause (signaled by underlining
in 1 and 2) can take inversion just as they do with independent clauses. Notice
the inversion after the relativizer in 1:
1 In the centre of the green was a pond, beside it was a wooden seat on which
sat two men talking. (FICT)
2 Introspection suggests that only rarely do we consciously ponder the
pronunciations of words. (ACAD)
Dependent clauses also have some special cases of inversion. These are
summarized in Table 12.3. The particularly interesting cases of interrogative
clauses and reported clauses are discussed below.
Dependent yes/no interrogative clauses (marked by [I below) are usually
introduced by whether or if and have ordinary subject-verb order, as in:
I asked them [if they would hurry it up a bit]. (FICT)
An informal alternative is to use subject-operator inversion:
410 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE A
Table 12.3 Special types of inversion in dependent clauses
type of dependent
clause
comparative clauses
with as and than
some clauses of
manner
conditional clauses
that are
hypothetical or
tentative and use
had, should, or
were
conditional clauses
that present
alternatives or
universals
interrogative
clauses
reporting clauses
examples description
Independent agenciesare
in a better position to
offer personalservice than
are those tied to big
chains. NEWS^)
Charlotte was fascinated,
as were the other guests.
(Fin)
1Should either of these
situations occur, wrong
control actions may be
taken. (ACAD)
2 Were it running more
slowly, all geologic activity
would have proceededat
a slower pace. (ACAD)
1When the going gets
tough, it's these people
who react best - be it a
natural disaster, accident
or sudden emergency.
(NEWS)
2 <...> [He] has somewhat
desperatelytried to make
up his mind to utter his
whole self, come what
may. (ACAD~)
And she said would we
like these shirts. (co~v)
'That's the whole trouble,'
said Gwen, laughing
slightly. (FICT)
The operator follows the
subordinator as or than. Usually in
formal writing.
The operator follows the
subordinator as.
The verbs had, should, or were come
before the subject. The alternative
form is to use the subordinator if (1
If either of these situations occur
...).
Alternative clauses can be
paraphrasedwith whether itlhelshel
they islare. The subjective be is used.
For (1) compare: whether it is a
natural disaster. Universal clauses
express a condition that is
universally true. They can be
paraphrasedwith whatever. For (2)
compare: whatever may come.
The inversion gives the sentence
characteristics of both direct and
indirect speech.
The reporting clause may have
subject-verb inversion. Inversion is
not usual, however, when the clause
subject is a pronoun (saidshe).
3 The young man who had seen Mac in Westmoreland Street asked [was it
true that Mac had won a bet over the billiard match]. (FICT)
4 She needed a backing guitarist and asked Kieran, who she had met once or
twice on the road, [would he help out]. (NEWS)
5 And she said [would we like these shirtsl. (cow)
This pattern represents a compromise between direct and indirect speech. It
preserves the subject-operator inversion of the independent interrogative clause,
but pronouns and verbs have been adjusted to show the reporting situation.
Compare, for example, these alternatives for the semi-direct speech in example5:
direct speech: And she said, 'Would you like these shirts?
indirect speech: And she asked whether we would like these shirts.
Reporting clauses are direct quotations of a.person's speech or thought. They are
on the borderline between independent and dependent clauses. They contain
some kind of reporting verb, which can be a simple verb of speakinglthinking
(e.g. say, think) or a related verb identifying a manner of speaking (e.g. mutter,
shriek),the type of speech act (e.g. ofer, promise), or the phase.of speaking (e.g.
begin, continue). Such clauses often have subject-verb inversion:
'That's the whole trouble', said Gwen, laughing slightly. (FICT)
Fifties and post impressionist, thought Alexander, connecting. (FICT)
Councils, argues Mr Cawley, are being hit by an unenviable double
whammy. (NEWS)
As these examples show, quotation marks are not always present.
In news, reporting clauses can also be used for attributions of written text:
Wherefarming used to be the only viable source of income, hundreds of
people havefound regular work, reveals Plain Talesfrom Northern
Ireland. NEWS^)
There is a strong preference for unmarked word order-that is, subject before
verb--under any of these three conditions:
where the subject is an unstressed pronoun:
'The safety record at Stansted is first class', said. (NEWS)
where the verb phrase is complex (containing auxiliary plus main verb):
'Konrad Schneider is the only one who matters', Reinhold had answered.
( n a )
where the verb is followed by a noun or pronoun that names the addressee:
There's so much to living that I did not know before, Jackie had told
happily. (ncr)
The conditions of inversion in reporting clauses are similar to those for all
inversion. Usually inversion is influenced by the end-weight and informationflow
principles. A weighty element andlor an element deserving emphasis is last.
However, inversions sometimes occur in unexpected conditions, such as with
this subject pronoun:
'We may all be famous, then,' said he. (ma)
12.4.4 Inversion across Figure 12.1
registers Approximate frequency of inversion
. . . . . .
Figure 12.1 shows that inversion is a
relatively rare phenomenon, s 1000
although it is somewhat more E
common in the written registers. In &
fiction and in news, inversion is most 600
common in reporting clauses, where
it accounts for more than half the
total occurrences.
Conversation has certain fixed
patterns involving inversion, for
CONV FlCT NEWS ACAD
412 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE B
example so am I, and there'shere's ... (where here and there are deictic adverbs,
as in Here comesyour mother). However, the time for planning and editing in the
written registers makes it easier to achievethe variety of word order required for
inversion.
Major points of GRAMMAR BITE A: Fronting and inversion
Many types of clause elements can be fronted (i.e. moved to the front of a
clause): objects, nominals other than objects, predicatives, non-finite
constructions, and some elements in dependent clauses.
Fronting is generally infrequent, but the frequency of each type varies
across the registers.
Fronting is typically used for cohesion and for special emphasis and
contrast.
Inversion has two primary forms: subject-verb and subject-operator
inversion. Other types of inversion occur in dependent clauses.
Inversion can be used 'for cohesion, information flow, intensification and
placement of focus.
Existential there is a device used to state the existence or occurrence of
something (or its non-existence or non-occurrence). It is used with an
intransitive or copular verb. Most typically, a clause with existential there has
the following structure:
there+ be + indefinite noun phrase (+ place or time positionadverbial)
There's a bear sitting in the corner.
For example:
1 A man goes in the pub. There's a bear sitting in the corner. He goes up to
the, he goes up to the bartender. He says, why is there a bear sitting over
there? (CONV)
2 There are around 6,000 accidents in the kitchens of Northern Ireland
homes every year. (NEWS)
The noun phrase following be is called the notional subject.Thus, in 1,a bear is
the notional subject, and in 2, around 6,000 accidents is the notional subject.
Typically, the notional subject is an indefinite noun phrase.
Clauseswith existentialthere are called existentialclauses. The main function
of existential clauses is to introduce new information, which is presented in the
indefinite noun phrase, the notional subject.
Existential there=
12.5.1 The grammatical status of existential there
ff
Existential there is a function word. It developed from the place adverb there, but
it no longer has a meaning of place. Existential there differs from the place adverb
there in the following ways:
Phonologically, it is normally reduced to /aa(r)/.
The original place meaning is lost.
Syntactically, it functions as a subject rather than an adverbial.
You can easily see the difference between existential there and adverbials when
existential there occurs in the same clause as the place adverbs there or here
(underlined in these examples):
1 There's more gravy M. (cow)
2 There's still no water &, is there? (cow)
Existential there is an empty grammatical element. It has no lexical meaning. The
place adverbs do have meaning and can be paraphrased: here = in this place,
there = in that place.
Syntactically,existentialthere behaves like a grammatical subject. It is placed
before the verb in declarativesentences,and as 2 and 3 show, it can be used with
inversion in questions and question tags.
3 Is there a microphone we can borrow? (cow)
Existential there can also occur as the subject of a non-finite clause:
N may be too large for [there to be room for that number]. (ACAD)
The paramedics arrived just in time, and there was some question of [there
being brain damage this time]. (FICT)
Such non-finite existential clauses are relatively rare, however. They usually
occur in academic prose.
Place there and existential there have very different patterns of distribution
across the registers, as you can see in Figure 12.2. Place there is very common in
conversation and very rare in academic prose, reflecting differences in the
importance of physical setting for
the registers. In conversation, the Figure 12.2
setting is shared by speaker and Existential v. locative there
addressee. It makes sense to refer to 4000
here and there. The same is true of 1 3w0
fictional dialog. But in news and o
Z 3000
academic prose, there is no shared E
physical setting. The frequency of $ 2500
the place adverb there is therefore 2000
low. When place there does occur, it 5 isooth
usually refers to a place in the text 1000
rather than the physical setting: e.g. 500
<...> references for further reading
given there (ACAD~). 0
CONV FlCT NEWS ACAD
In contrast to place there,
existential there is relatively
common in all four registers.
existentialthere locativethere
414 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE B
12.6 The verb in existential there clauses
The great majority of existential there clauses contain a form of the verb be. It
Pmay be preceded by auxiliaries or semi-modals: has been, will be, is to be, is
supposed to be, used to be, etc. Be may also occur in a to-infinitive complement,
where the controllinglexical verb expressesa kind of stance: happen to be, tend to
be, appear to be, is said to be, etc.:
There used to be a - a house on the end of the common up at Clarendon
Road. (co~vt)
If you want to know, thereis supposed to be a plot between you and me to
get hold of his wealth. (FICT)
There seem to have been a lot of people who took up painting for a while
and then dropped it. (NEWS)
is said to be a mismatch between the mother tongue and the target
language at these points. (ACAD)
Existential clauses can also contain verbs other than be, usually intransitiveverbs
of existence or occurrence:
Somewhere deep inside her arose a desperate hope that he would
embrace here. (FICT)
Thereseems no likelihood of a settlement. (NEWS)
Existential there clauses with verbs other than be are generally rare. Exist is the
most common alternative to be. It is used almost entirely in academic prose,
where it has a more formal sound than be:
There exist innate conventions through which human artifacts convey
meaning. (ACAD~)
There now exists an extensive literature on the construction and use of
social indicators in a variety of contexts. (ACAD~)
Fiction has a greater variety of verbs in existential clauses. These include come
and seem as well as a variety of less common verbs: arise, ascend, break out,
emerge, erupt, float, flw, flutter, etc.
There came a faint stirring in his entrails. (nmt)
Therefollowed a frozen pause. (FICT~)
There remained something unmistakably clerical in his manner. (FICT~)
12.7 The notional subject
The notional subject is the noun phrase that functions logically as the subject of
the clause. Since there has no content, the notional subject is what the clause is
mainly about. Usually, the notional subject is an indefinite noun phrase.
Simple v. compleic existential clauses=
There won't be a mass. ( c o w )
There was nobody here yesterday. ( c o w )
Many notional subjects are structurally complex:
There is something extra and a little heroic about him. ( F I C ~ ~ )
There must be an enormous sense of isolation, of being aware of'being
let down. (NEWS)
The notional subject can also be followed by a post-modifying clause:
There's a cow standing in the middle of the road. ( c o w t )
<compare:A cow is standing in the middle of the road.>
There are two scales of temperature used in science. (ACAD)
<compare: Two scales of temperature are used in science.>
Existential clauses also sometimes have notional subjects that are definite noun
phrases or proper nouns. For example:
First there was the scandal of Fergie romping with John Bryan, pictured
exclusively in the Mirror. (NEWS)
There is also the group of non-benzenoid aromatic compounds. (ACAD)
As in these examples, the definite noun phrases usually occur when a series of
new information elements is introduced, often marked explicitly with a linking
adverbial or additive adverb (e.g. first, also).
12.8 Adverbials in existential clauses
Often the important information of an existential clause is not simply that
something exists, but when or where it exists. Thus, existential clauses often
contain a time or place adverbial.
I said, well, there's a wheelbarrow down there. ( c o w )
There are no trains on Sundays. (NEWS~)
As in these examples, the adverbial is often at the end of the clause. However,
initial and medial placement is also possible:
1 Near the peak there were no more trees,just rocks and grass. (FICT)
2 There rose to her lips always some exclamation of triumph over lfe when
things came together in this peace, this rest, this eternity. (FICT)
The placement of the adverbials is affected by the same conditions as adverbials
of place and time in general (see 11.8). For example, in 1, the adverbial creates
cohesion in the text because it relates to previously mentioned information. The
ordering agreeswith the information-flowprinciple, with new information at the
end of the clause.
12.9 Simple v. complex existential
pclauses
We have just described two ways that existential clauses can be expanded: with
postmodification of the notional subject and with adverbials. Figure 12.3 shows
that the majorityof existential clauses have one or both kinds of expansion. Two
416 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE B
elements of existential clauses Figure 12.3
contain little or no information: the Existentialclauses with and without
verb (be, in most cases) and the expansion
grammatical subject there. As a
result, it is not surprising that most
existential clauses have additional g
n
information in adverbials or 70
postmodifiers of the notional subject. 60
Consider these existentialclauses 50
that have both forms of expansion- 40
an adverbial prepositional phrase 30
and a postmodifylng relative clause: 20
1 There's stuff [in here] we need.
10
0
(cow) CONV FlCT NEWS ACAD
2 In most cases a syllable is
represented by only one
character, but there are many
cases [among the 5581 &
which the same syllable is
written in more ways than one.
(ACAD~
You can see that, without the expansion, the clauses would not convey much
information: There's stuff (I), There are many cases (2). What is strange about 1
and 2 is that the relative clause (underlined) is separated from the rest of the
notional subjectby the adverbial (markedby [I). This is a symptom of the rather
loose way in which expansions are added to the end of the notional subject.
Existential clauses without expansion occur in all four registers, but they are
most common in conversation. There is a tendency in speech to present
information in smaller chunks and to leave more for the listener to infer. These
minimal existential clauses are often negative:
There's no bus. (cow)
Yeah, there really is no excuse, is there? (cow)
In these cases, the negative itself is important information.
no expansion
12.10 Discourse functions of existential
clauses
It is often said that existential there is used to introduce new elements into the
discourse. However, consider the exampleat the beginning of this Grammar Bite:
A man goes in the pub. There's a bear sitting in the corner. He goes up to
the, he goes up to the bartender. He says, why is there a bear sitting over
there? (cow)
Notice that the first sentence introduces a new element: a man. However, this
sentence does not use existential there. Instead, existential there is used twice
Discourse functions of existential clauseswhen
introducing the bear into the discourse. Significantly,the bear is the main
'character' in the story. Furthermore, when this utterance is spoken, stress falls
on bear.
From this example, you see that existential there is used especially to focus
on the existence or occurrence of something. Not only is this 'something new',
but it is probably going to be a focus of the continuing discourse. Since
existential there delays the new information until later in the clause, it is
consistent with the information-flow principle. Often the new information
comes at the end of the clause, thereby receiving end-focus.
One context where it is appropriate to focus on the existence of 'something
new' is at the beginning of a story. Thus, fairytales often open with an existential
clause:
Once upon a time there were three bears. Mama bear, Papa bear, baby
bear - They all went for a walk down the woods. (co~v)<mother reading
to child>
Sometimesin informal narrative, the notional subject is further emphasizedwith
the use of a demonstrative pronoun:
There was this really good-looking bloke and he was like - We, we'd given,
each other eyes over the bar in this pub and Lottie goes, well if you don't
hurry up with him I'm gonna go and have him. (cowt) <note: goes =
says>
There was this wonderful little old lady called the tissue collector. She was
grey haired, quite dumpy with a white coat on and she came to collect
sperm if you wanted it stored. She came up in fiont of my parents <...>
NEWS^)
Again, notice that the narrative continues with further reference to the person
introduced with existential there.
-,.;...slv... -2.-cp;-*. .a.*.ra.r-rr. x * - r , . . , r . * r , . * * ~ ,
B 'introducing a series of new ttems ,
Existential there is also used to develop text in another way. It is used to
introduce a series of items:
There are many types of aid to medical decision making available. The
earliest ones used <...> (ACAD~)
There are three basic rules to consider in planning a farm enterprise:<...>
(ACADt
The existential clause sets up the elements that are to follow. Existential clauses
also often introduce a series of 'new things' separately. For example:
1 But there was a stillness about Ralph as he sat that marked him out: there
was his size, and the attractive appearance; and most, obscurely, yet most
powerfully, there was the conch. (nc~)
2 It was like heaven. There was candlelight, and there were bunks with
quilts and blankets heaped on top. There was a table with a bottle of wine
and a loaf of bread and a sausage on it. There were four bowls of soup.
There were pictures of castles and lakes and pretty girls on the walls. (FIC~)
418 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE c
Major points of GRAMMAR BITE B: Existential there clauses
F Existential there is a grammatical subject but has no meaning content.
Most existential clauses have the verb be, but the written registers use
alternatives such as exist, come, and follow.
F The 'idea subject' of the existentialclause is called the notional subject. It is
usually an indefinite noun phrase.
Many existential there clauses have adverbials or postmodification of the
notional subject. This is because the obligatory elements of the clause
usually contain little information.
Existential clauses are used to introduce a new element (or series of
elements) which is going to be the focus of the following discourse.
Dislocation has to do with how information is distributed in spokenlanguage. It
is not a simple word order option, but involves breaking up a clause-like
structure into two separate chunks. A definite noun phrase is placed at one end
of the clause,and a co-referentialpronoun is used in the core of the clause. In the
following example, Iseparates the two chunks, which each express an important
piece of information:
This little shop ( 2's lovely. (cow)
The unmarked sentence structure would be: This little shop is lovely. With
dislocation, this littZe shop is placed in initial position and repeated with the
'proxy' pronoun it in the core of the clause.
There are two types of dislocation. The above example is a preface: the
definite noun phrase occurs in initial position. The definitenoun phrase can also
be after the clause--this is termed a noun phrase tag:
I think he's getting hooked on the taste of Vaseline, that dog. (cow)
12.11.1 Prefaces
Prefaces can precede both declarative and interrogative clauses. The relationship
between the preface and its clause varies. In many cases, the preface is coreferential
with a subject pronoun (underlined in the examples):
1 Sharon &plays bingo on Sunday night. (cow)
2 That picture of a frog, where is e?(cow)
3 'That crazy Siberian, what's his name, got one of the best houses in
town.' (HCT~)
A preface can also be co-referentialwith an object pronoun:
4 Well Bryony it seemed to be a heavy cold that was making her feel
miserable. (cow)
5 'ButAnna-Luise - what could have attracted her to a man in hisfifhes?'
(FICT)
The pronoun can even be embedded in a dependent clause, as it is in 4 (thatwas
making herfeel miserable).
12.11.2 Noun phrase tags
Noun phrase tags may follow both declarativeand interrogativeclauses. The tag
normally refers back to the subject of the preceding clause:
Has 2got double doors, that shop? (cow)
Did they have any, the kids? (cow)
Sometimes the noun phrase tag is a demonstrative pronoun rather than a
definite noun phrase:
It was a good book this. (cow)
12.11.3 Functions and distribution of prefaces and
noun phrase tags
Prefaces and noun phrase tags are relatively common in conversation, and they
also occur occasionally in fictional dialog; they are very rare in ordinary written
prose.
Prefaces serve to establish a topic. The same work can be done by separate
clauses:
A: When I went to the hospital today, there was this girl, right.
B: Yes.
A: She took an overdose. (co~vt)
Prefaces are also a sign of the evolving nature of conversation. Notice how the
first speaker appeals to the addresseeby adding the discourse marker right. The
addressee responds, and then the first speaker goes on to the main point.
The discourse functions of noun phrase tags are more difficult to pinpoint.
Frequentlythey seem to have a clarifying function. It is possible that the speaker,
after using a pronoun, may realize that the listener will not understand the
referent, and thus the noun phrase tag is necessary clarification. Some noun
phrases also seem to serve the principle of end-weight:
'It must have come as a bit of a shock, the idea of, er, Rhiannon coming
and settling down here after everything.' (FICT)
When tags consist of a demonstrativepronoun, they obviously do not fit either
the end-weight principle or the clarification function. In sentences such as the
following, end-focus seems to give the noun phrase extra emphasis:
That's marvelous that, isn't it yes? (cow)
12.12 Clefting
Clefting is similar to dislocation because information that could be given in a
single simpleclause is broken up. For clefting,the information is broken into two
420 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE C
clauses, each with its own verb. There are two major types of cleft constructions:
it-clefts and wh-clefts.
it-cleft:
1 It's a man I want. (FICT)
<compare: I want a man.>
wh-cleft:
2 What I want is something to eat, now! (cow)
<compare: i want something to eat.>
Clefts are used to bring particular elements of the clause into additional focus,
often for contrast. The extra focused element normally appears early in it-clefts
and late in wh-clefts. Thus, in 1 a man is focused, and in 2 something to eat is
focused. Both of these are direct objects in the basic clause structure I want X.
It-clefts consist of:
the pronoun it
a form of the verb be, optionallyaccompaniedby not or an adverbsuch as only
the focused element, which may be of the following types: a noun phrase, a
prepositional phrase, an adverb phrase, or an adverbial clause
a relative-like dependent clause introduced by that, who/which, or zero.
In the examples below, the specially focused element is in bold and the
dependent clause is in [I:
noun phrase:
His eyes were clear and brown andfilled with an appropriate country
shyness. It was his voice [that held me]. (FICT)
prepositional phrase:
It was onlyfor the carrot [that they put up with his abominableparties].
(FICT)
adverb:
It is here [that thefinite element analysis comes into its own]. (ACAD)
adverbial clause:
It was because thq, werejXghtened, he thought, [that they had grown so
small]. ( n c ~ )
You can see that the focused element has various syntactic roles as well. For
example, in 1, his voice acts as subject of the dependent clause: his voice held me.
In 2, the focused prepositional phrase is a reason adverbial: they put up with his
abominablepartiesfor the carrot.
A rare variant of it-clefts has the focused element in initial position:
The ceremony was in the hands of Mr Alexander Dubcek <. ..> He it was
[who ushered in the new head of state to the dais] <...> NEWS^)
The combination of fronting and the it-cleft construction has a heightening
effect. The meaning suggested is 'it was he and no one else'.
Wh-clefts consist oE
a clause introduced by a wh-word, usually what; this clause has its own point
of focus, usually at the end of the wh-clause
a form of the verb be
a the speciallyfocused nominal element: a noun phrase or a complement clause.
The specially focused element is in bold in the examples below, and the
dependent wh-clause is placed in [I:
a noun phrase:
[What I really need] is another credit card. (cow)
bare infinitive phrase:
[What you should do] is tag them when they come in. (cow)
to-infinitive clause:
[What he did] was to go to Holy Trinity Church. (FICT~)
Wh-clefts are less flexible than it-clefts in that they cannot be used to focus on a
prepositional phrase:
It is to that bqy [that she has remainedfaithful]. (FICT)
<but not: *What she has remainedfaithful is to that boy.>
On the other hand, wh-clefts have an advantageover it-clefts because they have a
double emphasis:they give some emphasis to the opening nominal clause as well
as to the element in final position.
12.12.3 Reversed and demonstrative wh-clefts
In general, reversed wh-clefts look like ordinary wh-clefts except that the whclause
and the focused element switch positions. In the following, the reversed
wh-clefts are underlined:
1 There's a lot more darkness in this second TV series compared with the last
one but darkness is [what comedy is all aboud. NEWS^)-
2 'Poor Albert,' Carrie said <...> He heard what she said and shouted down
to her, 'Help is (what I want], not your pity.' (FICT~)
In some cases, as in 1, the focused element is picked up from the preceding text
(here, darkness). This accounts for its early placement. In 2 the initial placement
seems to be used to emphasize the contrast between help and pity.
Another related structure has a demonstrative pronoun (usually that)
followed by a form of be plus a dependent clause introduced by a wh-word:
That's [how I spent my summer vacation]. ( F I ~ )
This is [what it means to say such systems are efjcective mixing devices].
(ACAD)
These structures usually cannot be reversed (*How Ispent my summervacation is
that). Similarto many reversed wh-clefts, they open with a reference to preceding
text. We refer to them as demonstrative wh-clefts.
422 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE C
p 12.12.4 Distribution of cleft constructions
8
Figure 12.4 shows that both
conversation and the written registers
use clefts, but the different types of
clefts have different distributions
across the registers.
It-clefts are relatively common in
all registers but most common in
academic prose. It-clefts are typically
contrastive:
But it wasn't the colour of his
eyes [that was peculiar to him],
it was the way he walked. (FICT)
Because the focused elements occurs
early in the sentence, the it-cleft is
suitable for expressing a connection
with the preceding discourse:
Figure 12.4
Frequency of cleft types
1800 ... .. . ... ..... .. ...... . .... .. . .
1600 . . . . , ..
1400
1200
1000
800
600 . . . .
400
200
0
CONV FICT NEWS ACAD
otherwh-cleft ordinaty whclen
These are thefaculties which
make clerks into merchants, and merchants into millionaires. It is these
[which enable the discontented clerk to earn more than eightypounds a
year]. (AM)
It-clefts can allow very precise statements to be made. They are also particularly
useful in academic prose for presenting information as 'given', or known.
Consider this example:
It is in fact the case that whereas not all the early investigators even tried to
validate their reasoning, several, including Cauchy, Servois and Boole,
certainly did. And it was in this connection [that Servois, in 1815,
introduced the notions offunctions which are 'distributive' and
'commutative', terms still used today]. (ACAD~)
The information in the subordinate clause is presented as known, or taken for
granted. Such clefts often occur in written texts, where they help to draw the line
between what is presupposed and what is treated as new information.
Wh-clefts are more associated with conversation than the written registers.
The focused element in wh-clefts is at the end, in agreement with the
information-flow principle. The purpose of the construction is to signal what is
taken as background and what is the main communicative point:
No that's Nescafe. [What we usually have] is Maxwell Housefiom work.
(cow)
This example occurred in a context where different sorts of coffee are discussed.
The main communicative point is at the end of the sentence. That is, the new
information is about MaxwellHouse. Wh-clefts are often used in conversationsas
a starting point for an utterance: whatIthink. ..,what Iwant to say. ..,what we
need ... ,what this means ...
Demonstrative wh-clefts show the biggest differences across registers:
relatively common in conversation but very rare in academic prose. The
Word order choices after the verb=
difference is probably one of formalityand also the low information content that
is common in these wh-clauses:
That's what I thought. (cowt)
12.13 Word order choices after the verb
In general, there is little variation in the order of the core elements towards the
end of the clause. However, there are a few options worth considering.
12.13.1 The placement of direct objects and indirect
'objects
Ditransitive verbs often allow two options that are equivalent in meaning:
indirect object+direct object:
I'll fix [you< ] [ some tea, DO> ] later. (FICT)
direct object+preposition to or for +prepositional object:
I'll fix fit<DO> I [for f you<~O>11- ( F I ~ )
For the indirect object+direct object pattern, the principle of end-weight is
most important. The indirect object is very short in most cases:
The Academy never granted [him] [the membership that was his lqe's
ambition]. (NEWS)
In the prepositional pattern, the prepositional phrase is often longer than the
direct object. In addition, the prepositional phrase is often a clearer way to
communicate the syntactic relationship. The prepositional phrase may even be
placed before the direct object:
This irregularity in her features was not grotesque, but charming, and gave
[to [Anastasia's face,po, ]][a humor she herself did not possess,^^, 1.
( ~ c T )
12.13.2 Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect
objects
Where both the direct and the indirect objects are personal pronouns, there are
three major patterns:
1 direct object+to-phrase: 'Give it to me, Pauli.' ( ~ n )
2 indirect object+direct object: Give me it, you little cow! (cow) <note:
cow is an insult here>
3 direct object +indirect object: 'Do let me give it him', she said. (FICT)
The first pattern, direct object+to-phrase, is the most common in all the
registers. This is probably because it is the clearest way to mark the syntactic
relationships in the clause. In patterns 2 and 3, there is no overt signal to show
which pronoun is the indirect object and which the direct. The correct
interpretation must be determined from the context. Pattern 2, indirect
object+direct object, occurs almost exclusively in conversation. Pattern 3
occurs in conversation and fiction, but is relatively rare in both.
424 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE c
12.13.3 Clauses with direct object and object
predicative
A direct object usually precedes an object predicative. However, the object may
be postponed to the end position under particular circumstances. In the
following examples,the objectpredicativeis underlined and the postponed direct
object is marked in bold:
Each region has a responsibility to create and make available a collection of
contemporary work. NEWS^)
<compare: Each region has a responsibility to create a collection of
contemporary work and make it available.>
The object predicative is light in such cases in comparison with the direct object,
which is long and complex. Where the direct object is a pronoun or a short
noun-headed phrase, it must precede the object predicative.
I can make you available to people, yeah? (co~vt)
<compare: *I can make available to people you.>
He made it impossible. (FICT)
<compare: *He made impossible it.>
P 12.13.4 Placement of objects of phrasal verbs
For transitive phrasal verbs, direct objects (DO) can be placed before or after the
adverbial particle (AP). In the following examples, the adverbial particle is
underlined, and the direct object is marked in bold:
1 Why do you like picking 9 the telephone so much? (cow)
2 How fast can you pick it g ? (cow)
Where the direct object is a pronoun, it is usually placed between the verb and
the particle (over 90 per cent of the time), as in 2. However, when the direct
object is an indefinite pronoun, it is often placed after the adverbial particle:
He's going to - er - pick 9 somebody somewhere. (cowl)
He sent out someone to capture the bounty hunter. (FICT~)
When the direct object is a full noun, there is more variation in its placement. In
conversation, over 60 per cent of the occurrences have the order direct
object+adverbialparticle. However, in the written registers less than 10per cent
of the occurrences have this order. In general, placement follows the principle of
end-weight, with heavy direct objects placed after the adverbial particle.
Two other factors are particularly interesting in the placement of the direct
object. First, the placement depends somewhat on the nature of the phrasal verb.
Some phrasal verbs, such as take up and make out, are idiomatic. That is, up and
out do not have their literal meanings. In these cases, adverbial particle+direct
object is preferred. Other phrasal verbs can have a more literal meaning, such as
take out, where out still has a spatial meaning. In these cases, direct
object+adverbial particle is more usual. You can see the contrast in the
following examples with carry out, which has both an idiomatic and literal
meaning:
Summary: syntactic choices in conversation v. academic
idiomatic meaning, adverbial particle+direct object:
Now carry out the instructions. (FICT)
literal meaning, direct object+adverbial particle:
The Gemans carried the corpse out. (FICT)
The second factor is the use of adverbials. Typically, direct object+adverbial
particle is preferred when the particle is followed by an adverbial. For example:
Paul took his friend g to the top floor. (FICT)
Last week a husband took his wife outfor a drive. NEWS^)
In these cases, the particle and adverbialare closely related in meaning and so are
placed together.
i2.1~qSummary: syntactic choices in
pconversation v. academic prose
With the exception of existentialclauses, the special word-order choices covered
in this chapter are relatively rare. This does not mean that the devices are
unimportant. When they are used well, they can contribute greatly to the
coherence and effectiveness of a text. The devices that are chosen most often,
however, vary across the registers. For a final review of these patterns of
variation, we focus on conversation and academicprose, the registers which tend
to differ the most. (Althoughthe passivewas discussed in an earlier chapter (6.6-
8),we include it here. Other structures, like extraposition (Ch. 10)and adverbial
position (Ch. 11) have been M y described in earlier chapters.)
In the following,+and - indicate higher v. lower relative frequency:
CONV ACAD
marked word order (fronting, inversion, etc.) - +
passive constructions - +
existential there + prefaces
and noun phrase tags + demonstrative
wh-clefts + As
you can see, marked word order and passive constructions are more common
in academic prose. These choices are more complex structures, reflecting the
complexity of academic content and the opportunity to edit and rewrite.
Existentialthere, prefaces, noun phrase tags, and demonstrative wh-clefts are
more common in conversation. Conversation is produced without planning and
editing, and production demands are eased by the use of prefaces and tags and, in
general, by shorter and simpler clauses-including short existential clauses. The
language of conversation is also less varied and relies more on brief stereotyped
expressions, including demonstrative wh-clefts such as That's what I thought.
.>
Major points of GRAMMAR BITE C: Other topics in word order
There are several additional ways of manipulating word order for such
purposes as focus, cohesion, contrast, and end-weight.
E There are two types of dislocation: prefaces and noun phrase tags.
426 Chapter 12: Word order choices GRAMMAR BITE c
> They occur almost exclusively in conversation, and help to break the
discourse up into manageable 'chunks'.
Clefts are another special construction type, subdivided into it-clefts and
wh-clefts.
> Both types allow special emphasis to be put on a particular element.
> It-clefts are used especiallyfor contrast and cohesion. They are particularly
common in academic prose.
> Wh-clefts show typical information flow, though some have very little new
information. They are informal and most common in conversation.
There are also a fewword order options followingthe verb: the placement of
direct objects, indirect objects, objectpredicatives, and objectsof phrasalverbs.
The options for word order are used with different frequencies across the
registers.