A Guide to English Lexicon A Guide to English Lexicon Pavel Kolář 2014 A Guide to English Lexicon Recenzovali: A Guide to English Lexicon Obsah Úvodem 1.................................................................................................. 1. General concepts 2................................................................................ Basic lexicological notions 5............................................................... 2. Lexicography and English dictionaries 16............................................ 3. Origin of English word stock 26........................................................... 4. Word frequency 43................................................................................ 5. Word formation 46................................................................................ 6. Word formation processes in detail 50.................................................. Derivation 50........................................................................................ Compounds 71..................................................................................... Conversion 76...................................................................................... Abbreviations 80.................................................................................. 7. Multi-word expressions 86................................................................... Collocations 86..................................................................................... Proverbs 91........................................................................................... Idioms 92.............................................................................................. Phrasal verbs 95................................................................................... Prepositional verbs 100........................................................................ Phraseological units 103...................................................................... Catch phrase 105.................................................................................. Slogans 105.......................................................................................... Lexical bundles (lexical phrases) 106.................................................. 8. Englishes 110........................................................................................ 9. American English word stock 118........................................................ 10. Sense relations 133............................................................................. Synonymy 133..................................................................................... Antonymy 135...................................................................................... Polysemy 137....................................................................................... Homonymy 138.................................................................................... Hyponymy and hyperonymy 140......................................................... Other sense relations 141..................................................................... False friends (paronyms) 141............................................................... Transfer of meaning 142...................................................................... 11. Slang 146............................................................................................. 12. Taboo words and swear words 149..................................................... Taboo words 149.................................................................................. Swearwords 150................................................................................... 13. Archaisms 155..................................................................................... 14. Diminutives 156.................................................................................. A Guide to English Lexicon Bibliography and further reading 159....................................................... Úvodem Toto stručné kompendium anglické lexikologie je určeno studentům bakalářského stupně oboru anglický jazyk v učitelském i filologickém programu a slouží jako doprovodný text k přednáškovému cyklu. Tím se ovšem nevylučuje, že by v něm nemohli najít žádoucí informace i ti, kteří se o angličtinu zajímají hlouběji mimo rámec vysokoškolského studia. Protože čas na přednášku je limitován, publikace má studujícím poskytnout data v požadované šíři. Učební text se zabývá nejen původem anglické slovní zásoby, ale klade důraz především na aktuální slovní zásobu. Přitom se neomezuje pouze na britskou angličtinu, ale snaží se pokrýt co nejširší spektrum tzv. „angličtin“, což vyplývá ze současných migračních trendů a z nich vyplývajících jazykových potřeb. 1 1. General concepts By its origin lexicology has Greek roots, which are as follows: Λεξικον - dictionary Λογoς - discourse Definition Lexicology refers to the overall study of a language’s vocabulary (including its history) – its lexicon, which studies all its aspects: • naming • formation • development • usage • lexical phrases • meaning Classification of lexicology Lexicology, like any linguistic field, has several branches: • General lexicology (dealing with general problems of the field irrespective of a particular language) • Special lexicology (dealing with the lexical aspects of a particular language) • Historical lexicology (dealing with the evolution of vocabulary) • Synchronic lexicology (dealing with the structure of vocabulary, properties and functions of words of the current period) • Other approaches to the classification of lexicology: Contrastive, Confrontational, etc. Definition of the lexicon All the words that are used in a particular language are called the lexis, lexicon or word stock. 2 Size of the lexicon There are approximately 450,000 lemmas in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, while the Oxford English Dictionary presents 500,000 items. This is caused by the fact that the OED has more British dialects and more historical references. A combined lexicon covering all Englishes would exceed three quarters of a million words. In terms of a single individual we speak about the personal lexicon, which can be: • active • passive It is obvious that people do not use the same scope of the lexicon. The scope depends on their professional position and education. In the following table we can see the size of respective lexicons according to occupation. After Crystal (1995) According to Marvin Spevack Shakespeare used a lexicon of some 30,000 units (Systematic Concordance of the Works of Shakespeare, 1968-80). The central vocabulary, called the core of the language, has circa 15,000 items. Job Active Passive an office secretary 31 500 38 300 a business woman and voracious reader 63 000 73 350 lecturer 56 250 76 250 3 Fairly often we can come across words we are not likely to be familiar with. In the paragraphs that follow we can see whether we can effectively use the words which are somewhat beyond the standard scope. Fob off, enigmatic, collate, awry, vixen, traduce, maladroit, panegyric, jape, hyperventilate, fortuitous, aversion, avant-garde, ennui, permutation, indoctrinate, demise, validate, euphemism, facsimile (Reader’s Digest 1985 – The right word at the right time) The words quoted above are probably intelligible to an educated person, irrespective of whether he speaks English or not. For a foreigner it is the short words which cause serious problems in understanding. Short words: snaffle, snafu, snag, snare, snarl, snatch, sneak, sneer, sneeze, snide, sniff, snigger, snipe, snitch, snivel, snob, snoop, snooty, snort, snot, snout, snub, snuffle Lexicography We should not mix the term lexicology with the notion of lexicography (Gr. Λεξικον – dictionary, γραθειν – to write), which refers to the art and science of dictionary creation. 4 Basic lexicological notions Lexeme Lexeme is the bearer of meaning. It is a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item. As such it covers more than just a single word. If we consider the lexeme nut, it can have semantic representation in several words: nut (food), nut (engineering), nut (enthusiastic, foolish, silly), nut (head), etc. Sememe The meaning of the lexeme is the sememe (a set of semantic elements - semes). The sememe can consist of various elements: emotional, denotative, referential, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Every word has some meaning which can be classified in two basic categories as follows: Denotative meaning It is an equivalent of referential or cognitive (dog: canine, quadruped) aspect. It is an objective link between a lexeme (a reflection of reality in the language) and the reality. Connotative meaning It is an equivalent of the emotional aspect (dog: helper, friend, faithful). It represents the personal dimension of the lexical meaning. Example: Bus: a public transport vehicle (denotation). Something cheap, convenient, inconvenient, comfortable, uncomfortable (connotation). If a lexeme is highly charged with connotations we say that it is loaded. Two typical models of loaded language are the language of politicians and the usage of colours in the language. 5 Examples of loaded language: Politics: capitalism, nationalism, fascism, radical, federalism, democracy, bureaucracy, politician, dogma, fundamentalist Connotations of colours: red confident, assertive, exciting, aggressive, domineering, bossy, threatening pink feminine, gentle, accessible, pathetic, unimportant, safe, under- confident blue peaceful, trustworthy, constant, orderly, tiresome, predictable, conservative brown earthy, homely, gregarious, boring, unsophisticated yellow cheerful, hopeful, active, uninhibited, impulsive, tiresome, volatile, whirlwind green self-reliant, tenacious, nurturing, stubborn, risk-averse, predictable orange vital, funny, enthusiastic, sociable, uninhibited, superficial, common, faddish, giddy violet imaginative, sensitive, intuitive, unusual, unselfish, weird, impractical, immature, superior grey respectable, neutral, balanced, non-committal, deceptive, uncertain, safe black formal, sophisticated, mysterious, strong, mournful, aloof, negative, lifeless white pure, clean, fresh, futuristic, clinical, colourless, cold, neutral Semantic field It is a named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other in specific ways. Thus it is possible to classify words like banana, mouth or bicycle. Semantic fields are organized according to various principles (oppositeness, hierarchy, etc.). In any case they are joined by a common semantic component (family, food, kinship, colour). A particular word can be understood only within the structure of the semantic field. Thus the meaning of the word captain can be semantically understood within other army ranks (private, corporal, sergeant, non-commissioned officer, commissioned officer, etc.). Yet it is much more difficult with, for example, abstract words (good, difficult, taste, flavour, etc.). We should also be aware of the fact that semantic fields are not identical in different languages (limited scope and overlap in 6 Gaelic, red missing in Latin, Shona language in Zimbabwe with only three colours, two expressions for blue in Russian, etc.). Thesaurus Developments in natural history and its system of classification had a great influence even on language studies. Peter Mark Roget pioneered the language thesaurus that we know today. Roget’s thesaurus was first published in 1852 and it divides the lexicon into six main areas: abstract relations, space, the material world, intellect, volition, and sentiment/ moral powers, each of which is sub-classified giving a total of 1000 semantic categories. Students find the thesaurus indispensable when writing essays because it provides them with a systematic offer of a particular semantic field. Jan Ámos Komenský, who pioneered the field with a systematic classification of semantic fields, should be mentioned here with his Janua Linguarum Reserata (Leszno 1627). Lexical structure (Ferdinand de Saussure) The lexical structure model analyses words from the angle of two dimensions: • the horizontal dimension in which we sense the relationship between lexemes in a sequence, i.e. we know intuitively which words occur together (also called syntagmatic level) • vertical dimension in which one lexeme can be substituted by another (paradigmatic level) 7 Paradigmatic (substitution) (collocations: 1+2; 1+4; 3+4) Syntagmatic (sequence) I writhed on the ground in excruciating pain. 1 2 3 4 My auntie has bought a red automobile. uncle sold green car father purchased black roadster mother hired spacy van RELATED IN SENSE dentist videoed old laptop lawyer crashed lazy pencil UNRELATED IN SENSE 8 9 Componential analysis It is a very useful method by which we can analyse the meaning of words by single components – series of semes. Each seme is allocated a dichotomic value (present/non-present). Some words, namely those organized in semantic fields, have certain features in common. bachelor: human • academic degree • male who has never been married • young knight serving under the standard of another king animal • male fur-seal without a mate human adult male female mother + + - + father + + + son + +/- + daughter + +/- - + cow - + - + bull - + + calf - - +/- +/- 10 The componential analysis as a more accurate approach will help us bypass common one-to-one translation errors. Unlike a closed series of words (furniture, ranks, colours, family, etc.), which is fairly small, the open series of words represent a more complex and suitable object. After Newmark (Approaches to Translation) bawdy: essential components (functional) • shocking (emotional) • related to sex act (factual) • humorous (emotional) secondary components (descriptive) • loud • vulgar (in relation to social class) The synonymic area is much wider: lascivious, salacious, prurient, earthy, risqué, ribald, coarse, licentious, raunchy, crude, rude, rough, vulgar, gross, crass, indelicate, etc. shocking se x humour loudness vulgarity intensity bawdy + + + + + 3 ribald ? + + + + 4 smutty + + + - + 8 lewd + + - - - 2 coarse +/- - - - + 6 vulgar + - - - + 7 indecent + +/- - - - 5 obscene + +/- - - - 1 11 If we try to translate the title of a famous Hollywood film Indecent Proposal to Czech, we will have to find a more intensive equivalent. 12 Other methods of semantic representation Diagrammatic Diagrammatic representation of the semantic field appears a very useful method of semantic analysis due to its visual representation. 1. Without overlap 2. Overlapping 3. Inclusive 13 Semantics Semantics in general is closely related to two aspects: • perception of the world (segmentation of reality) o the reality must be segmented o the segments are iterative o the segments are not absolutely identical (inherent ambiguity) • creation of verb reality o dog (barking, hairy, body shape) o car (shape, four wheels, noises) o mother (smell, feel, voice, face, etc.) The meaning of a word is actually a dynamic process: mother: for a child, in family law, for a husband During mental development a further segmentation takes place and a human individual enters the area of semantic relations. Semantic relations: • synonymy (boy, lad) • antonymy (truth, lie) • polysemy (nut, bear) • homonymy (john) • hyperonymy (flower, tulip) • hyponymy (tulip, flower) 14 Key words: lexicology, classification of lexicology, lexicon, passive and active lexicon, lexicography, lexeme, lexical item, sememe, seme, denotative meaning, connotative meaning, loaded language, semantic field, thesaurus, lexical structure (de Saussure), componential analysis, diagrammatic representation, semantics Questions: What is lexicology? What are the essential branches of lexicology? What is the lexicon of a language? In real life we use two types of the lexicon. What are they? What is lexicography? What is the lexeme? What is the classification of the meaning? What is the language highly charged with connotations called? Render the connotations of at least five colours. What is the semantic field? What is the thesaurus based on? How did F. de Saussure analyse the word structure? What is the componential analysis? Give an example of this method. Why is the diagrammatic representation of the meanings of words useful? What is the semantics of the language based on? Render the semantic relations. 15 2. Lexicography and English dictionaries Among many English lexicographers at least three have an indispensable place in history: Johnson, Webster and Murray. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) spent over seven years in writing definitions of about 40,000 words, and his activities resulted in the publication of A Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. He was not the first in the field. Nathaniel Bailey pioneered the field with his Universal Etymological English Dictionary. Bailey's Dictionarium Britannicum, which contains 48,000 words, was first published in 1730. Bailey's dictionaries were extremely popular. They were larger and more comprehensive than any other dictionaries of the day, and they also sold 16 well. Samuel Johnson owned a copy which he scribbled over, underlining sections and adding his own ideas. It would later help him to write his own dictionary. Johnson’s definitions were far more discriminating and sophisticated and his selection wider-ranging. In the preface he claimed that his aim was “not to form but register the language”. 17 Examples from Johnson’s dictionary: LEXICO’GRAPHER. n.s. [? lixicographe, French.] A writer of dictionaries; a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words. Commentators and lexicographers acquainted with the Syriac language, have given these hints in their writings on scripture. Watt’s Improvement of the Mind LEXICO’GRAPHY. n.s. [?] The art or practice of writing dictionaries. LE’XICON. n.s. [?] A dictionary; a book teaching the signification of words. Though a linguist should pride himself to have all the tongues that Babel cleft the world into, yet if he had not studied the solid things in them as well as the words and lexicons, yet he were nothing so much to be esteemed a learned man as any yeoman competently wise in his mother dialect only. Milton OATS. n.s. [?, Saxon] A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people. It is of the grass leaved tribe; the flowers have no petals, and are disposed in a loose panicle: the grain is eatable. The meal makes tolerably good bread. Miller The oats have eaten the horses. Shakespeare It is bare mechanism, no otherwise produced than the turning of a wild oat beard, by the insinuation of the particles of moisture. Locke For your lean cattle, fodder them with barley straw first, and the oat straw last. Mortimer His horse’s allowance of oats and beans, was greater than the journey required. Swift PENSION An allowance made to anyone without an equivalent. In England it is generally understood to mean pay given to a state hireling for treason to his country 18 Noah Webster (1758-1843) Webster published his An American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828. It took twenty-seven years to complete. Webster learned twentysix languages, including Old English (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit because he wanted to be fully competent in etymology of words. He also hoped to standardize American speech, since Americans in different parts of the country spelled, pronounced, and used English words differently. Webster completed his dictionary in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the University of Cambridge. His book contained 70,000 words - 12,000 had not appeared in a published dictionary before. He was a spelling reformer and believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced American English spellings, replacing colour with color, substituting wagon for waggon, and printing center instead of centre. He also added American words like skunk and squash that were not presented in British dictionaries. Webster published his dictionary in 1828 when he was seventy. After his death the rights were purchased by Charles and George Merriams and the dictionary was then published under a new name – Merriam-Webster. The third edition of the New International Webster came out in 1963 and caused a controversy by its emphasized descriptive approach. During the War of Dictionaries the critics attacked citations from popular sources (domestic novels, magazines) and many Americans thought that it went too far. It did not for example condemn the substandard form ain’t. In the 1990s the company merged with the Random House publishing house and the dictionaries have a third name. 19 James Murray (1837-1915) In 1857 the Philological Society of Great Britain adopted a decision to publish a dictionary which would record the history of the language from historical times. After some twenty years they signed an agreement with Oxford University Press and appointed James A.H. Murray as editor. Murray was a son of a village tailor. He was an auto-didact and left school at the age of 14. Before his lexicographic activities he worked as a clerk and a teacher. He was the father of The New English Dictionary and he personally edited more than 50% of the first entries. It is said that he worked 80-90 hours a week, often without a break, rising at 5 a.m. and getting through a great deal of his day’s load before breakfast. Yet Murray and his colleagues managed only the section from A to ANT. Soon after they found out that the dictionary was far beyond their capacities. Additional editors were appointed and the Oxford English Dictionary was produced in fascicles (folio format) for 44 years (the final fascicle published in 1928). The whole dictionary was comprised of 12 volumes 20 and 414,825 lexical items. Today the dictionary is available in an electronic form (CD). According to Murray the most prolific contributor to OED was Dr. William Minor (1834-1920), originally a military surgeon, later a Broadmoor asylum client. Czech pioneer in English dictionary making Josef Emanuel Mourek (1846-1911) Mourek first dealt with some specific features of the Gothic language and contributed to Ottův slovník naučný (Horace Walpole). The climax of his linguistic activities is represented by the first English-Czech Dictionary published in Leipzig in 1896. This genuine piece of work addressed a wide public of scholars, readers and translators and coincided with the needs of the most prolific translation period in Czech cultural history. 21 Types of dictionaries Dictionaries usually apply alphabetic arrangement. Yet some dictionaries do not follow this approach. Roget’s Thesaurus is organized on the basis of semantic fields and the same method was adopted by the authors of the Longman Lexicon in the 1980s. General dictionaries: Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. 2000. (600,000 words) The New Shorter English Dictionary, 6th ed. 2007. The Random House Webster’s College Dictionary 2nd rev. ed. 2005. (315,000 words) Merriam-Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary. 2003. (225,000 words) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 6th rev. ed. 2014. Collins English Dictionary 11th ed. 2011. Specialized Dictionaries – language: 22 Dictionary of synonyms: • Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms. 1984. • The Oxford Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. 2007. • The Penguin Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words. Dictionary of idioms and phrasal verbs: • Cowie-Mackin-McCaig: Oxford. Collins Cobuild Phrasal Verbs Dictionary. 2012. • Collins Cobuild Idioms Dictionary. 2012. Dictionary of collocations: • Benson, Benson, Ilson: The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of the English Language. 1996. • Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English. 2009. Dictionary of neologism: • The Oxford Dictionary of New Words. 1999. Dictionary of Pronunciation: • Jones, Roach: Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 2011. • Wells: Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3rd ed. 2008. Dictionary of etymology: • Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology. 1996. Dictionary of frequency: • West: A General Service List of English Words. 1980. Thorndike, Lorge: The Teacher’s Book of 30,000 Words. 1944. Dictionary of slang: • Partridge: A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. 1988. • Ayto, Simpson: The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang, 2nd ed. 2008. Dictionary of dialects: • Ramson: The Australian National Dictionary. 1983. • Cassidy: Longman Dictionary of American English. 1985. Dictionary of catch phrases: • Farkas. A.: Oxford Dictionary of Catch Phrases. 2003. 23 Specialized Dictionaries – learner’s dictionaries: • Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 8th ed. 2010. (3000 keyword defining dictionary) Level B2-C2 • Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of Academic English • Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 2005. • Collins Cobuild Dictionary 2nd ed. 2005. • Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 4th ed. 2013. Level C1-C2 • word builders, word finders Thesauruses: • Waite: Oxford Paperback Thesaurus 2nd ed. 2001. • Roget's International Thesaurus. 7th ed. 2011. • McArthur: Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. 2004. Dictionaries for research: • LDO3-NLP Database (Longman). Professional dictionary: • Oxford Dictionary of Business English. 1993. Czech Dictionaries of English: • Poldauf: Velký česko-anglický slovník. 1997. • Fronek: Anglicko-český a česko-anglický slovník. 2004. • Hais, Hodek: Velký Anglicko-český slovník. 2000. Czech Dictionaries of English: professional language (law, biology, marketing, information technology): Česko-anglický technický slovník; Anglicko-český technický slovník 1983. 24 Key words: lexicography, general dictionaries, defining dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, learners´ dictionaries, thesaurus, dictionaries for research, professional dictionaries, translation dictionaries Questions: Who were the first English and American lexicographers? How did Dr S. Johnson contribute to the art of lexicography? Specify the contribution of Noah Webster. What were the origins of the Oxford English Dictionary and the role of James Murray? What was the War of Dictionaries? Render the typology of dictionaries. What is the name of the most extensive dictionary in the USA? Which dictionaries would you recommend to students of English? What dictionary will you consult if you look for the etymology of a particular word? Render some dictionaries of synonyms, idioms and phrasal verbs. What is the dictionary of catch phrases? Do you know any dictionary of collocations? What is the difference between a thesaurus and a dictionary? Render the names of four major Czech lexicographers of English and their contribution. Render the names of British publishers of dictionaries. Render the names of American publishers of dictionaries. What was Ogden’s Basic English? 25 3. Origin of English word stock We can follow the etymology of the current English lexicon back to the inhabitants of the British Isles: the Celts, Saxons, Romans, Scandinavians, Normans and others. What is even more interesting is the fact that there are traces of the inhabitants of the British Isles in the place names. Here you can see the major influencers in the chronological arrangement: Celts Bally-, Balla-, Bal- farm, village Derry-, -derry, -dare oak wood Glen- narrow valey Loch lake crag, cumb – deep valley, binn – bin, carr – rock, dunn – grey, brock – badger, torr – peak, bannoc – piece, rice – rule, gafeluc – small spear, bratt – cloak, luh – lake, dry – sorcere, clucge – bell, rivers: Thames, Avon, Don, Exe, Usk, Wye (approximately two dozen) Romans (1st century B.C. – 5th century, Latin I) Chester, -cester fortified camp, Roman town Villa house Legion Century Capital pise – pea, plante – plant, win – wine, cyse – cheese, catte – cat, cetel – kettle, disc – dish, candel – candle, belt –belt, cemes – shirt, sutere – shoemaker, tigle – tile, weall – wall, ceaster – city/camp, stræt – road, wic – camp, diht – saying, scrifan – decree, mangian – trade, ceapinan – buy, pund – pound, mæsse – mass, munuc – monk, mynster – minster (200 words at the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period) 26 Angles, Saxons, Jutes (6th century – 9th century) Ac-, Aik-, Oak-, Oke-, -ock oak Barrow-, -bere, -beare, -ber grove, wood Bar-, Berg-, -borough, -burgh, -bury fortified place Dun-, Down-, -down, -don, -ton hill, down -ing place of -sted, -stead place, site Word formation: derivation and compounding • compounding: ciricgang – churchgoing, forliggang – adultery, gangewifre – spider, hindergenga – crab, godspel – gospel, mynsterman – monk, sunnadæg – Sunday • derivation: beganga - inhabitant, begangan – visit, foregān – go before, ingān – go in, ingang – entrance, tōgān – go into, upgang – rising, ūtgang – go out Synonyms of the sea: sæ, mere, brim, lagu, wæter Scandinavians (Vikings I) Dal, -dale dale, valley -ey, -ay island -ness, Nas-, Nes- cape, headland -thorpe, -throp, -trop farm, village -Thwaite, -thwaite glade, clearing Words of the Scandinavian origin: landing, score, beck, fellow, take, hunting, steersman, skirt, skin, sky, both, same, get, give, they, them, their, Anglo-Saxon sindon replaced by to be, again, anger, awkward, bag, band, bank, birth, brink, bull, cake, call, clip, crawl, crook, die, dirt, dregs, egg, flat, fog, freckle, gap, gasp, get, guess, happy, husband, ill, keel, kid, knife, law, leg, loan, low, muggy, neck, odd, outlaw, race, raise, ransack, reindeer, rid, root, rugged, scant, scare, scowl, scrap, seat, seem, silver, sister, skill, skirt, sly, smile, snub, sprint, steak, take, thrift, Thursday, tight, trust, want, weak, window 27 Duplication of words (etymological doublets): Scandinavian family names (-son ending): Davidson, Jackson, and Henderson Latin loans before 1000 abbadissa, altar, apostolus, culpa – cylpe, missa, nonnus – monk, offerre, offrian – sacrifice, praedicare – preach, scola – school, versus – verse, calendae – month, cavellum, caul – basket, epistula – letter, fenestra, fenester – window, lilium – lily, organum, orgel – organ, picus, pic – pike, rosa,rose – rose, studere, studdian – take care of Old Norse Old English dike ditch hale hole raise rise scrub shrub sick ill skill craft skin hide skirt shirt garth yard kirk church laup leap nay no trigg true 28 Normans (Vikings II – French speaking) After the Norman Conquest the society in England was divided by two languages: Old English and French. Two level society (French/Anglo-Saxon) French loans: Administration: authority, bailiff, baron, chamberlain, chancellor, constable, coroner, council, court, crown, duke, empire, exchequer, government, liberty, majesty, manor, mayor, messenger Law: accuse, adultery, advocate, arrest, arson, assault, assize, attorney, bail, bar, blame, chattels, convict, crime, decree, depose, estate, evidence, executor, felon, fine, fraud, heir Religion: abbey, anoint, baptism, cardinal, cathedral, chant, chaplain, charity, clergy, communion, confess, convent, creator, crucifix, divine, faith, friar, heresy, homily, immortality, incense Military: ambush, archer, army, barbican, battle, besiege, captain, combat, defend, enemy, garrison, guard, hauberk, lance, lieutenant, moat, navy, peace, portcullis, retreat Food and drink: appetite, bacon, beef, biscuit, clove, confection, cream, cruet, date, dinner, feast, fig, fruit, fry, grape, gravy, gruel, herb, jelly, lettuce, mackerel, mince, mustard, mutton, olive, orange, oyster, pigeon, plate, pork, poultry, raisin, repast, roast, salad, salmon, sardine, saucer, sausage, sole, spice, stew, sturgeon, sugar, supper, tart, taste, toast, treacle, tripe, veal, venison, vinegar nobility – English/French peasant – English/German beef/boef cow/Kuh veal/veau calf/Kalb pork/porc swine/Schwein mutton/mouton sheep/Schöps lamb/venison lamb/Lam 29 Fashion: apparel, attire, boots, brooch, buckle, button, cape, chemise, cloak, collar, diamond, dress, embroidery, emerald, ermine, fashion, frock, fur, garment, garter, gown, jewel, lace, mitten, ornament, pearl, petticoat, pleat, robe, satin, taffeta, tassel, train, ceil, wardrobe Science and learning: alkali, anatomy, arsenic, calendar, clause, copy, gender, geometry, gout, jaundice, leper, medicine, metal, noun, ointment, pain, physician, plague, pleurisy The home: basin, blanket, bucket, ceiling, cellar, chair, chamber, chandelier, chimney, closet, couch, curtain, cushion, garret, joist, kennel, lamp, lantern, latch, lattice, pantry, parlour, pillar, porch, quilt, scullery, towel General nouns: action, adventure, affection, age, air, city, comfort, country, courage, courtesy, cruelty, debt, deceit, dozen, envy, error, face, fault, flower, forest, grief, honour, hour, joy General adjectives: active, amorous, blue, brown, calm, certain, clear, common, cruel, curious, eager, easy, final, foreign, gay, gentle, honest, horrible, large, mean, natural, nice, original, perfect General verbs: advise, allow, arrange, carry, change, close, continue, cry, deceive, delay, enjoy, enter, form, grant, inform, join, marry, move, obey, pass, pay, please, prefer, prove, push, quit, receive, refuse, remember, reply, satisfy, save, serve, suppose, travel, trip, wait, waste Phrases: by heart, come to a head, do homage, do justice, have mercy on, hold one’s peace, make compliant, on the point of, rake pity on 30 14th century England – difference between the North and the South Despite the fact that England was one realm with one king at the end of 14th century, the language had not been unified. There were differences in vocabulary distinguishing the north from the south. Here is a story and situation that William Caxton had to face. (The Egg Story - Prologue to Virgil’s Book of Eneydos, circa 1490). […] In so moche that in my dayes happened that certayn marchauntes were in a shippe in tamyse for to haue sayled ouer the see into zelande and for lacke of wynde thei taryed atte forlond. And wente to lande for to refreshe And one of theym named sheffelde a mercer can into an hows and axed for mete. And specyally he axyd after eggys And the good wyf answerde. That she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchuant was angry. For he laso coude speke no frenshe. But wold haue hadde egges/ and she vnderstode hym not / And thenne at laste a nother sayd that he wolde haue eyeren / then the good wyf sayd that she vndersod hym wel […] Key to the lexicon: eyren – southern form; egges – northern form Actually he and his contemporaries had to sort out the following issues: • Should they use foreign words in translations or replace them by native English words? • Which variety of English should they follow (northern or southern)? • How should the words be spelled? 31 Latin and Greek Late Latin loans (after 1000): apostat – apostate, chrisma, crisma – chrism, clericus, cleric – clerk, credo, creda – creed, crucem, cruc – cross, daemon, demon – demon, discipulus, discipul – disciple, paradisus, paradis – paradise, prior – prior, sabbatum, sabbat – sabbath, bibliotheca, bibliotheca – library, chorus, chor – choir, chorus, declinare, declinian – decline, delphinus, delfin – dolphin, grammatical – grammar, hymnus, ymen – hymn, mechanicus, mechanisc – mechanical, persicum, persic – peach, scutula, scutel – scuttle, dish By 1400 about 10,000 new lexemes had come into the language from French, and just several thousand from Latin – the surviving Old English lexicon was in the minority. Renaissance Loan Words in English From Latin and Greek: absurdity, adapt, agile, alienate, allusion, anachronism, anonymous, appropriate, assassinate, atmosphere, autograph, benefit, capsule, catastrophe, chaos, climax From or via French: alloy, anatomy, battery, bayonet, bigot, bizarre, chocolate, colonel, comrade, detail, docility, duel From or via Italian: balcony, ballot, carnival, concerto, cupola, design, fuse, giraffe, grotto, lottery, macaroni, opera, piazza, portico, rocket, solo, sonata, sonnet, soprano, stanza, stucco, trill, violin, volcano From or via Spanish or Portuguese: alligator, anchovy, apricot, armada, banana, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canoe, cockroach, cocoa, corral, desperado, embargo, guitar, hammock, hurricane, maize, mosquito, mulatto, Negro, potato, port (wine), rusk, sombrero, tank, tobacco, yam 32 English has many words with similar meaning but different origin, which are used according to a particular register. For example medical register requires words of Latin or Greek origin (renal, dental, auricular) or the veterinary register is characteristic of words like bovine, equine or ovine. Lexical twins Lexical triplets Latin and Greek adjectives Old English French Latin guts courage clothes attire climb - ascend sweat perspire happiness - felicity house mansion wish desire Old English French Latin rise mount ascend ask question interrogate fast firm secure kingly royal regal holy sacred consecrated fire flame conflagration English Classical home domestic 33 Some types of the semantic change in history The elements of the lexicon are not semantically fixed, but they are subject to development. Here are some processes which can be applied. Extension or generalisation – A word widens its meaning. For example in Latin virtue was a male quality (cf. vir = man). Today it applies to both sexes. Narrowing or specialisation – A word becomes more specialized in meaning. For example in Old English mete referred to food in general (a meaning which is retained in sweetmeat). Shift – A word moves from one set of circumstances to another. For example navigator/pilot once applied only to ships, but it now applies to planes, and even to cars. Figurative use – A shift in meaning based on an analogy or likeness between things. For example crane, a bird with long neck, has led to the use of crane as a piece of equipment for lifting weights. earth terrestrial tooth dental head capital eye ocular ear auricular tongue lingual mouth oral kidney renal heart cordial dog canine cow bovine sheep ovine horse equine 34 Amelioration – A word loses an original sense of disapproval. For example mischievous has lost its strong sense of disastrous, and now means the milder playful annoying. Pejoration or deterioration – A word develops a sense of disapproval. For example notorious once meant widely known, and now means widely and unfavourably known. 35 Fairly often people have wrong assumptions about some etymologies. They make their judgements according to the surface appearance of a particular word. Some surprising etymologies treacle ¬¬ wild animal villain ¬¬ farm labourer taxation ¬¬ fault finding bonnet ¬¬ man’s hat furniture¬¬ equipment pretty ¬¬ ingenious cheater ¬¬ rent collector naughty ¬¬ worth nothing vulgar ¬¬ ordinary sly ¬¬ wise publican¬¬ public servant orchard ¬¬ garden (without fruit trees) Folk etymology (not real) sparrow-grass (asparagus): has nothing to do with sparrows sirloin: a legend has it that one English king found this joint of meat so splendid that he gave it a knighthood – sir = sur). 36 Generations and the meaning It is quite surprising that two close generations like grandparents and grandchildren have problems in understanding the same word. This can be due to political and various other reasons. Examples: We were born before television, before penicillin, polio shots, frozen foods, Xerox, plastic, contact lenses, videos, frisbees and the Pill. We were before radar, credit cards, split atoms, laser beams and ballpoint pens; before dishwashers, tumble driers, electric blankets, air conditioners, drip-dry clothes and before man walked on the moon. We got married first and then lived together (how quaint can you be?). We thought "fast food" was what you ate in Lent, a "Big Mac" was an oversized raincoat and "crumpet" we had for tea. We existed before house husbands, computer dating, dual cars and when a "meaningful relationship" meant getting along with cousins and "sheltered accommodation" was where you waited for a bus. We were before day care centres, group homes and disposable nappies. We never heard of FM radio, tape decks, electric typewriters, artificial hearts, word processors, yoghurt, or young men wearing earrings. For us "time sharing" meant togetherness, a "chip" was a piece of wood or fried potato, "hardware" meant nuts and bolts and "software" wasn't a word. Before 1945 "Made in Japan" meant junk, the term "making out" referred to how you did in your exams, "stud" was something that fastened a collar to a shirt and "going all the way" meant staying on a double-decker to the bus depot. Pizzas, McDonalds and instant coffee were unheard of in our day, cigarette smoking was "fashionable", "grass" was mown, "coke" was kept in the coal house, a "joint" was a piece of meat you eat on Sundays and "pot" was something you cooked in. "Rock music" was a fond mother's lullaby, "Eldorado" was an ice cream, a "gay person" was the life and soul of the party and nothing more, while "aids" just meant beauty treatment or help for someone in trouble. (Quoted from the web). pre-war generation post-war generation fast food food eaten in lent food from MacDonald’s grass only grass marihuana (1968 and later) 37 English names The etymology of English names can easily be traced back because they are usually semantically meaningful. The following list gives you an idea of their onomastic function. Common English names Toponyms: Hills and slopes: bank, barrow, borough, breck, cam, cliff, crook, down, edge, head, hill, how, hurst, ley, ling, lith, mond, over, pen, ridge, side, tor – Barrow, Blackdown, Longridge, Thornborough, Windhill Valleys and hollows: bottom, clogh, combe, dale, den, ditch, glen, grave, hole, hope, slade – Cowdale, Denton, Hoole, Longbottom, Thorncombe Woods and groves: bear, carr, derry, fen, frith, greave, grove, heath, holt, lea, moor, oak, rise, scough, shaw, tree, well, with, wold, wood – Blackheath, Hazlewood, Oakley, Southwold Rivers and streams: batch, beck, brook, burn, ey, fleet, font, ford, keld, lade, lake, latch, marsh, mere, mouth, ore, pool, rith, wade, water, well – Broadwater, Fishlake, Mersey, Rushbrooke, Saltburn Dwellings and farms: barton, berwick, biggin, bold, by, cote, ham, hampstead, hamton, house, scale, sett, stall, thorpe, toft, ton, wick – Fishwick, Newham, Potterton, Westby, Woodthorpe General locations and routes: bridge, ford, gate, ing, mark, path, stead, stoke, stow, street, sty, way – Epping, Horsepath, Longford, Ridgeway, Stonebridge Coastline elements: ey, holme, hulme, hythe, naze, ness, port, sea – Bardsey, Greenhithe, Sheerness, Southport, Southsea Fields and clearings: combe, croft, den, erh, field, ham, haugh, hay, ing, land, lease, lock, meadow, rick, ridding, rode, shot, side, thwaite, wardine, worth, worthy – Applethwaite, Cowden, Smallworthy, Southworth Buildings and stones: brough, burton, caster, church, cross, kirk, mill, minster, stain, stone, wark – Crossthwaite, Felixkirk, Newminster, Staines, Whitchurch 38 Personal Names Surnames: Derived from a particular location: Norman, Moor, Hall, Chesterfield, Street, Wood Derived from occupation: Barber, Butcher, Carpenter, Clark, Cook Cooper, Farmer, Plumber, Smith, Tailor, Turner Expressing kinship, relationship to a parent or ancestor: Johnson, Watkins, Nicholas, Thomas Nicknames: Long, Little, Moody, Fox, Brown, Young, Rich First names: Physical characteristic: Kevin (handsome at birth), Maurice (dark skinned), Thomas (twin) Relate to time and place of origin or activity: Barbara (foreign), Francis, Noel, George (farmer) Desirable characteristic: Peter (rock), Agnes (pure), Hilary (cheerful) Parent´s feelings: Amy (loved), Abigail (father rejoices), Lucy (light) Variations of Jehovah and other designations for God: John, Jonathan, Josephine, Joan, Jeremy, Emanuel, Elisabeth Plants, gemstones, etc.: Crystal, Fern, Heather, Holly, Rosemary, Ruby, Susan (lily). Surnames as first names (19th century custom): Baron, Beverly, Fletcher, Maxwell, Clifford, Douglas, Shirley Nicknames They date back to the 15th century – an eke name = additional name to express such attitudes as familiarity, affection and ridicule. They do not apply only to people but also to places and things: Silicon Valley, Motown, Emerald Isle, Red Planet, Costa Geriatrica – south England, Jolly Jogger – pirate flag, Black Thursday. Personal nicknames are very common: Chalky – White, Nobby – Clark, Spider – Web, Chuck – Charles, Menace – Dennis, Spike – Michael, Baldy, Four-eyes, Tubby – fatty), Iron Duke – Wellington, Merry Monarch – Charles II, Old Hickory – President Andrew Jackson Key words: 39 lexical twins, lexical triplets, extension of meaning, narrowing, shift, figurative use, amelioration, pejoration, toponyms, nicknames Questions: Render some traces of Gaelic in British place names. Render at least four English place names whose origin comes from Latin castra (with the pronunciation). Render examples of Anglo-Saxon word formation. What do the following word components have in common: Derry-, -derry, -dare, Ac-, Aik-, Oak-, Oke-, -ock? What is the meaning of Anglo-Saxon down, dun? What is the meaning of Anglo-Saxon borough, burgh, bury? There is a duplication of words (etymological doublets). Fill in the missing words. Old Norse Old English dike raise rise scrub shrub ill skill skin shirt yard kirk nay 40 Render three common Scandinavian family names in English. Which parts of social life were influenced most by Normans? Render examples. How did Latin and Greek influence English? Current English has synonymy of English and Latin/Greek adjectives. Fill in the missing words and explain the usage. Render examples of semantic changes in history: What are English toponyms derived from in terms of meaning? What are English surnames derived from in terms of meaning? What are English first names derived from in terms of meaning? What is the origin of nicknames in English? English Latin/Greek home earth tooth head eye ear tongue mouth kidney heart dog cow sheep horse 41 Render some examples. Are there any Czech words in the English lexicon? 42 4. Word frequency The statistics of the word stock are invaluable in the design of an English textbook lexicon. Until recently the frequency was analysed, irrespective of a particular register, with the result of a dictionary of frequency. Today the situation is different and much more plausible owing to the fact that recent studies are based on extensive linguistic corpora and their results can be filtered by respective functional styles. One of the best appears the LSWE corpus which pays attention to the following registers: • conversation • news • fiction • academic style Here are some findings published in Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber at al., 1999). Most common lexical verbs in LSWE Corpus 43 frequency per million words 0 1250 2500 3750 5000 say go think m ake take give Findings • The 12 most common lexical verbs all occur over 1000 times per million words. • These very common verbs are unevenly distributed across the semantic domains: • six are activity verbs: get, go make, come, take, give; • five are mental verbs: know, think, see, want, mean • one is a communicative verb: say, which is the single most common lexical verb overall Frequency and register 44 Distribution of the most common v. other verbs freqencypermillion (thousands) 0 35 70 105 140 CO N V ERSATIO N FICTIO N N EW S A CA D EM IC 12 most common other lexical verbs Findings • Taken as a group, the 12 most common lexical verbs occur much more frequently in conversation than the other three registers. They account for nearly 45% of all lexical verbs in conversation. • Conversely, this group of very common verbs occurs least commonly in academic prose, where they account for only 11% of lexical verbs. Key words: dictionary of frequency, register, functional style, lexical verb, even distribution, uneven distribution, activity verbs, mental verbs, communicative verbs Questions: Do lexical verbs have the same frequency in all four registers? Which are 12 most common lexical verbs in English? Render the most common activity verbs. Render the most common mental verbs. Render the most common communicative verbs. 45 5. Word formation Processes Today’s English applies principal and minor processes of word formation. A. Principal types of word formation Compounding: Two or more words or their parts put together. Typology: simple: blackbird blends: brunch, breathalyser, smog multi compounds: at-no-cost-to-you gift, a state-of-the art T-shirt Orwelian blends: Pornsec - pornography section, Ficdep – fiction department, Recdep, Thinkpol – thought police Derivation: Word building by means of affixes: inflectional (grammatical) and derivational (lexical). • suffixation • prefixation Conversion: Change of the part of speech. a chair v. to chair export v. to export (stress placement) young v. the young (adjective and noun) food v. feed (gradation) 46 B. Minor types of word formation Invention: Free choice of sounds. dreft (soap powder), Kodak Shortening (Acronyms, Abbreviations, Clips): NATO, UNO, UNPROFOR, UNRRA, Telly, Pop Reduplication: A type of compounding with a slight change in spelling: criss-cross, mishmash, humpty-dumpty Back-formation: Original word is longer. a baby-sitter v. to baby-sit television v. to televise double-glazing v. to double-glaze accreditation v. to accredit Neologisms Nonce words created just for once: fluddle = bigger than a puddle and smaller than a flood Real neologisms: Aginda = a pre-conference drink circumtreeviation = a tendency of a dog to pass trees on the opposite side agonize = wait anxiously for the suitcase in the baggage claim area Nonsense words 100-letter blends (Mary Popins, Finnegan’s wake) Bothallchoractorschumminaroundgansumuminarumdrumstrumtruminahu mptadumpwaultpoofooloopderamaunsturnup! 47 Productivity English is rather limited in its morphological forms. In terms of productivity the following principles can be adopted: • noun plural, 3rd person singular, possessive case, past tense, past participle, participle -ing • we cannot rely on what was productive in the past (goose/geese) • we cannot rely on the foreign derivations (abattoir - abattre + oir, karate - kara + te) • we have to study words like workaholic, motel, bionic, etc. Phonological constraints Initial: SF, MR, DL, etc. Final: H Pragmatic constraints armchairs – ∗legchairs Examples of constraints in the word formation: mrvogol (phonological) gracedis (morphological – DIS is a prefix) emptyless (semantic and grammatical – LESS cannot be added to adjectives) snow-cream (possible but unused) untall (unused) 48 Key words: compounding, derivation, suffix, prefix, infix, invention, acronym, abbreviation, clip, reduplication, conversion, back-formation, neologism, nonsense word, productive forms, phonological constraints, pragmatic constraints Questions: Render the most productive forms in English morphology. Are the original word components in borrowed words relevant? Are historical forms applicable to modern lexicon? What role do phonological constraints play? What role do pragmatic constraints play? 49 6. Word formation processes in detail Word formation is a process – a dynamic process. New words are formed irrespective of a wish of a single individual without the general consensus. Any sort of forceful influence will eventually have a zero effect. Here we can read a short passage from Orwell´s 1994. “The Eleventh Edition is the definite edition,” he said. “We’re getting the language into its final shape – the shape it’s going to have when nobody speaks anything else. When we’re finished with it, people like you will have to learn it all over again. You think, I daresay, that our chief job is inventing words. But not a bit of it! We´re destroying words – scores of them, hundreds of them, every day. We´re cutting the language down to the bone. The Eleventh Edition won’t contain a single word that will become obsolete before the year 2050.” […] “It’s a beautiful thing, the destruction of words. Of course the great wastage is in the verbs and adjectives, but there are hundreds of nouns that can be rid of as well. It isn’t only synonyms; there are also the antonyms. After all what justification is there for a word which is simply the opposite of some other word? A word contains opposite in itself. Take “good“, for instance. If you have a word like “good”, what need is there for a word like “bad”? “Ungoodly” will do just as well – better, because it’s an exact opposite, which the other is not. (George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, p.44) Derivation Derivation (affixation) is a very productive form of word building by means of adding a prefix or a suffix to the already existing base. Despite the fact that there are almost twice as many suffixes (terminal affixes) than prefixes, they are less productive. A suffix can change the lexical meaning, its grammatical meaning and even the word class. 50 Suffixes 1. Noun suffixes a) Denominal nouns (noun + suffix) Suffix Meaning Example STER, EER occupational gangster, gamester, trickster, engineer, profiteer, racketeer, marketeer, pamphleteer ER occupational glover, teenager, Londoner, double- decker IST occupational therapist, novelist, rapist, geologist LET diminutive, feminine booklet, piglet, starlet, leaflet ETTE small kitchenette, cigarette imitation leatherette, flannelette female usherette, suffragette, Yankette LING small princeling, duckling ESS STRESS female waitress, lioness, tigress seamstress, songstress Y often IE daddy, auntie, Johnny, pussy, pinkie HOOD status boyhood, brotherhood, widowhood SHIP status friendship, membership, lectureship, dictatorship DOM domain kingdom, stardom OCRACY status plutocracy, democracy, 51 ERY status, domain slavery, nunnery, refinery, machinery, ING domain tubing, panelling FUL amount mouthful, spoonful, plateful 52 Noun/adjective → noun/adjective suffixes b) Deverbal nouns (verb + suffix) Suffix Meaning Example ITTE member of tribe, sect Israelite, Brooklynite, Stalinite, Labourite (I)AN belonging to Indonesian, Parisian, Elisabethan, republican 'ESE nationality, language Chinese, Portuguese, journalese, Obamese. Initial stress in attributive position IST party member, occupation masochist, Budhist, violinist, physicist ISM doctrine Calvinism, idealism, impressionism Suffix Meaning Example ER agential worker, writer, driver, employer, receiver, silencer, thriller, washer-up, tin-opener, cooker (passive - cooking apples, active - kitchen cooker) OR agential (neo-classical words) inspector, actor, survivor AR agential liar, beggar ANT agential inhabitant, contestant, informant, lubricant, disinfectant EE (stressed) passive draftee, payee, appointee, trainee, employee ATION state, action fixation, exploration, victimisation, ratification, starvation institution foundation, organization 53 MENT state, action arrangement, amazement, embodiment, puzzlement AL action refusal, revival, dismissal, upheaval ING activity, state, result bathing, driving, betting, earnings, shavings AGE extent, amount coverage, wastage, leverage 54 2. Adjective suffixes a) Verb + suffix b) Noun, adjective, number + suffix Suffix Meaning Example ABLE passive or worthy meaning acceptable, readable, drinkable, commendable, liveable with IBLE neo-classical words perfectible, edible, feasible Suffix Meaning Example Y quality of bushy, dirty, hairy, smelly ISH somewhat (informal) reddish, latish, tallish, tenish, poorish, youngish ED having ... walled, wooded, pointed, fairhaired, blue-eyed, simple-minded, full-flavoured, odd-shaped Also with syllabic pronunciation: dogged, wretched, ragged, three- legged AL, IAL stress on the penultimate syllable of the base criminal, cultural, editorial, preferential ESQUE picturesque IC, ICAL atomic, emphatic, heroic, problematic, specific Languages: Celtic, Arabic Nationality: Arab, Arabian IVE, ATIVE, ITIVE having quality attractive, expansive, explosive, productive, talkative, imaginative, sensitive FUL amount spoonful, mouthful 55 Adjectives with IC and ICAL Some adjectives ending in IC academic, artistic, athletic, catholic, domestic, dramatic, emphatic, energetic, fantastic, linguistic, majestic, neurotic, pathetic, phonetic, public, semantic, syntactic, systematic, tragic New words which come into the language generally end with IC. Some adjectives ending with ICAL biological, chemical, critical, cynical, grammatical, logical, mathematical, mechanical, medical, musical, physical, radical, surgical, tactical, topical Adjectives with both forms (no difference in meaning) algebraic(al), arithmetic(al), egoistic(al), fanatic(al), geometric(al), strategic(al) Adjectives with both forms and difference in meaning LESS restless LIKE birdlike LY friendly OUS ambitious, erroneous, courteous, grievous, virtuous, vivacious SOME bothersome WORTHY praiseworthy Examples Meaning a classic performance, wine famous or supreme classical languages referring to ancient Rome and Greece a comic performance adjective for artistic comedy his comical behaviour old fashioned word meaning funny 56 economic model in the economy economical car money-saving electric light , motor, blanket powered by electricity electrical fault, engineering of electricity historic date making history historical research connected with or existing in history his politic behaviour tactful, wise, prudent political parties connected with politics 57 3. Verb suffixes Nouns, adjectives + suffix 4. Adverbs suffixes Adjective, adverb, noun + suffix Suffix Meaning Example IFY causative beautify, diversify, codify, amplify, simplify, certify, identify, electrify, purify, dandify IZE, ISE causative decimalise, symbolize, hospitalise, publicise, popularise, legalise, modernise EN resultative (less productive now) ripen, widen, deafen, sadden, quicken Suffix Meaning Example LY in a manner happily, strangely, comically, oddly WARDS WARD (AmE) manner and direction onwards, backwards, homewards, eastwards WISE in a manner, concerning crabwise, clockwise, weatherwise, education-wise 58 59 Questions: Render at least 11 suffixes which form denominal nouns (with examples). Render at least 7 suffixes which form deverbal nouns (with examples). Render two suffixes which form deverbal adjectives (with examples). Render at least 13 suffixes which form adjectives derived from nouns, adjectives and numbers (with examples). Explain the difference between the IC and ICAL forms of the following adjectives. Render 3 verb suffixes (with examples). Render 3 adverb suffixes (with examples). Examples Meaning a classic performance, wine classical languages a comic performance his comical behaviour economic model economical car electric light , motor, blanket electrical fault, engineering historic date historical research his politic behaviour political parties 60 61 Prefixes (initial affixes) Prefixation is a process of word building by adding a prefix to the already existing base. The prefix usually changes the lexical meaning but unlike suffixes only seldom changes the part of speech. a) Negative prefixes b) Reversative and privative prefixes Prefix Example Meaning NON non-smoker, non-drip, non-conformist 1. Unrepairable, unreplaceable, unmovable - more absolute than irreparable. 2. Non expresses binary contrast without gradability rather than the opposite end of a scale. Not non-American but rather un-American behaviour. 3. Member and sentence negation: The house was not occupied. The house was unoccupied. IN insane, incomplete, inattentive IL (before l) illegal IM (before labials) improper, immovable IR (before r) irregular, irreversible DIS disobey, disloyal, disorder, discontent A /æ/, /eɪ/ amoral, asexual, asymmetry, anarchy, atheist /eɪ/ Prefix Example UN undo, untie, unzip, unpack, unwrap, unleash, unhorse, unmask DE /di:/ decentralise, decode, defrost, decapitate, deforestation DIS disconnect, dispossess, discoloured, discontent 62 63 c) Pejorative prefixes d) Prefixes of degree and size Prefix Example Meaning MAL maltreat, malformed, malfunction, malnutrition badly Verbs with -mal, and -mis tend to be gradable. MIS miscalculate, mishear, misfire, misinform, mislead, misconduct wrongly He very much miscalculated the time required. PSEUDO pseudo-classicism, pseudointellectual, pseudo-Gothic imitation Prefix Example Meaning ARCH archduke, archbishop Also pejorative meaning: arch-enemy, arch- hypocrite archangel /a:k/ - the prefix stressed. SUPER superman, supermarket, supersensitive, superstructure very special, more than, superior MEGA megastore originally 106, extremely big OUT outrun, outlive, outgrow, outnumber surpass OVER oversimplify, overeat, overestimate, overdressed, overreact, overplay, overconfident, overconscientious excessive SUR surcharge, surtax over and above HYPER hypersensitive, hypercritical, hyperactive extreme 64 e) Prefixes of orientation and attitude f) Locative prefixes ULTRA ultraviolet, ultra-modern, ultra- conservative extreme, beyond MINI minimarket, minibus, miniskirt, minidisc, MAXI maxi-length, maxi-cab, maxilingua rare - Latin words MIDI, MID midnight, midday, mid-season, mid-manager, midicase, midicoat, midiskirt SUB substandard, subnormal, sublet, subdivide under UNDER undercook, underfeed, underprivileged Prefix Example Meaning CO co-education, co-operate, copilot, co-heir, co-opt, coordinate, coexist jointly, on equal footing ANTI anti-social, anti-clerical, anticlockwise, anti-war /ænti, æntaɪ/ antibody - stress on the first syllable *Suggests attitude of opposition while counter response to a previous action. CONTRA contraindicate, contrafactual, contraproductive, contraflow opposite COUNTE R counter-espionage, counterclockwise, counteract, counterrevolution * PRO pro-Castro pro-communist, pro- American 65 g) Prefixes of time and order h) Number prefixes Prefix Example Meaning FORE foreground, foreshore forearm, foreleg, forename front part of INTER international, interlinear, intercontinental, intertwine, interweave SUB subway, under SUPER superstructure, superscript above TRANS transatlantic, trans-Siberian, transplant transport - initial stress INTRA intra-uterine, intra-venous Latin words EXTR A extramural, extra-territorial, extraterrestrial, extrasolar, extra- linguistic more productive Prefix Example Meaning EX ex-president, ex-husband, former FORE foretell, forewarn, foreknowledge, foreplay, foretaste before POST post-war, post-election, post- classical, after PRE /pri:/ pre-war, pre-school, pre-19th century, pre-marital pre-heat, pre-cook before, in advance Also ANTE - antenatal, antediluvian RE /ri:/ rebuild, reclaim, re-use, recycle again, back NB. Recover my cushion. vs. Re-cover my cushion. 66 Prefix Example Meaning UNI, MONO unisex, univalve, unilateral, unidirectional monorail, monoplane, monogamy, monolith, monologue, monophthong one NB. monoxide BI, DI biplane, bicycle bilateral, bifocal, bilingual, dichotomy, diode, dioxide, bi-annual two NB. duo TRI tripod, tricycle, trimaran, trimester, trident, three NB. trio MULTI, POLY polyglot, polygon, polygamy, polyandry, polysemy, polytechnic, multi-storey, multilateral, multiracial, multipurpose many OTHER quadrangle, quartet, quintet, sextet, pentagon, hexagonal, heptagonal, octagonal, decathlon 67 i) Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes Prefix Example Meaning AUTO autosuggestion, autobiography, automation, autocrat self NEO neo-classicism, neoGothic, neo-Nazi revived PALEO palaeography, Palaeolithic old PAN pan-African, PanAmerican, pan- European all, universal PROTO protoplasm, prototype first, original TELE telegram, telephone, telescope distant SEMI semidetached half VICE vice-president, viceadmiral, viceroy, vice- chairman deputy 68 Key words: negative prefixes, reversative prefixes, privative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree and size, prefixes of orientation and attitude, locative prefixes, prefixes of time and order, number prefixes, neoclassical prefixes Questions: Render at least 5 negative prefixes (with examples). Render reversative and privative prefixes (with examples). Render 3 pejorative prefixes (with examples). Render 10 prefixes of degree and size (with examples). Render 5 prefixes of orientation and attitude (with examples). Render at least 5 locative prefixes (with examples). Render 4 prefixes of time and order (with examples). Render at least 5 number prefixes (with examples). Render the meaning and examples of the following neo-classical prefixes. Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes Prefix Example Meaning AUTO NEO PALEO PAN PROTO TELE 69 Infixes English, unlike other languages, does not have a system of infixes. But people fairly often, if being emphatic or swearing, use this word formation type: absobloominglutely kangabloodyroo I don´t like intebloodyminillectuals. They occur especially with taboo words and have intensifying function. Fanfuckingtastic! Infuckingcredible! Unfuckingbelievable! SEMI VICE 70 Compounds Definition It is a unit of at least two bases with one primary stress. Orthography • solid: bedroom • hyphenated: tax-free • open: reading material The orthography of compounds is not fixed; it is often influenced by a geographical variant of English or personal stance of the writer. Example: flowerpot, flowerpot, flower pot Geographical variants: BrE: airbrake, callgirl, drydock, letterwriter AmE: air brake, call girl, dry dock, letter writer Phonology English compounds are distinguished from syntagmas by means of the stress. There are compounds which, unlike their syntagmatic counterparts, have the primary stress on the first element: blackbird x black bird, greenhouse x green house, blackcap x black cap, childbed, gentleman, bluebell, background, broadcast, typewriter, carferry, sunrise, suitcase, teacup, bell ringer, alms giving, blue jacket, brown shirt, skin head, Yellow Stone, Greenland The second group is characteristic of the secondary stress on the first element and the primary stress on the other: loudspeaker, badtempered, secondclass, threewheeler, fancy-dress, cooking apples Classification a) Noun compounds 71 subject + deverbal noun SUNRISE (bee-sting, daybreak, earthquake, headache, heartbeat, rainfall, toothache) verb + object RATTLESNAKE (driftwood, flashlight, hangman, playboy, popcorn, tugboat, turntable, watchdog) verbal nouns + subject DANCING GIRL (cleaning woman, firing squad, washing machine) b) Verb and object compounds object + deverbal noun BLOODTEST (haircut, birth-control, crime report, handshake) object + verbal noun SIGHTSEEING (air-conditioning, book-keeping, brainwashing, housekeeping, story-telling, dressmaking) object + agential noun TAXPAYER (cigar smoker, gamekeeper, matchmaker, songwriter, stockholder, window-cleaner) verb + object CALL-GIRL (drawbridge, knitwear, pin-up girl, punch card, treadmill) verbal noun + object CHEWING GUM (cooking apples, drinking water, reading material) 72 c) Verbal and adverbial compounds verbal noun + adverbial SWIMMING POOL (diving board, drinking cup, freezing point, frying pan, living room, waiting room, baking powder, sewing machine) adverbial + verbal noun DAYDREAMING (churchgoing, horse riding, sunbathing, sleepwalking, handwriting) adverbial + agential noun BABY-SITTER (backswimmer, city-dweller, factory-owner, playgoer) adverbial + deverbal noun HOMEWORK (filed-work, moon walk, daydream, gunfight) verb + adverbial SEARCHLIGHT (springboard, workbench, grindstone) d) Verbless compounds noun + noun (cable car, steam engine, oil well, silkworm, tear gas, bloodstain, gaslight, hay fever, doorknob, arrowhead, bottleneck, piano keys, shirt-sleeves, table leg, telephone receiver, window pane, girlfriend, pussy-cat, blinker light, frogman, goldfish, tissue paper, bread-crumb, fishpond, safety belt) adjective + noun (blackboard, blueprint, dry-dock, madman, madhouse) 73 e) Adjective compounds object + ing participle MAN-EATING (breath-taking, heart-breaking, life-giving) f) Verb and adverbial compounds adverbial + ing participle OCEAN-GOING (law-abiding, lip-sucking, fist-fighting) adverbial + ed participle HOME-MADE (suntanned, thunder-struck, airborne, handmade) adjective/adverb + ing participle HARD-WORKING (easy-going, good-looking, everlasting) adjective/adverb + ed participle QUICK-FROZEN (far-fetched, new-laid, wide-spread) g) Verbless compounds noun + adjective CLASS-CONSCIOUS (rustproof, fireproof, carsick, air-tight, grassgreen, bottle-green, ocean-green) adjective + adjective SWEDISH-AMERICAN (bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, Anglo-American, socio-economic) h) Verb compounds object + verb SIGHTSEE (housekeep, lip-read, brain-wash) adverbial + verb SPRING-CLEAN (baby-sit, bottle-feed, chain-smoke, day-dream, window-shop) 74 i) Orwelian compoundspeak His newspeak uses two kinds of words: • vocabulary that consists of everyday items • vocabulary that is ideological Ideological vocabulary has only compound words, which according to Orwell is a verbal shorthand: doublethink, goodthink, oldthink, crimethink, oldspeak, speakwrite, thoughtcrime, sexcrime, prolefeed, dayorder, blackwhite, duckspeak with no irregular forms in newspeak. Questions: How can you identify a compound? Is the orthography of compounds fixed? Does the stress placement have any relevance? How can you classify compounds? 75 Conversion Definition It is a process of forming new words of a different part of speech without affixation. Classification a) Primary word class conversion Verb ⇒ Noun desire, dismay, doubt, love, smell, taste, want, attempt, fall, hit, laugh, release, search, shutdown, swim answer, bet, catch, find, hand-out bore, cheat, coach cover, wrap, wrench walk, throw, lie divide, retreat, rise, turn Adjective ⇒ Noun bitter, natural, final, daily, comic, regulars, roast, marrieds Noun ⇒ Verb bottle, corner, catalogue, floor, garage, position, coat, commission, grease, mask, muzzle, plaster, core, peel, skin, brake, elbow, fiddle, finger, glue, knife, father, nurse, parrot, pilot referee, cash, cripple, group, mail, ship, telegraph, boat, canoe, motor Adjective ⇒ Verb calm, dirty, humble, lower, soundproof, dry, empty, narrow, weary, yellow Noun ⇒ Adjective (attributive and predicative) a brick garage ← The garage is brick. reproduction furniture ← This furniture is reproduction. Worcester porcelain ← This porcelain is Worcester a very Oxbridge accent ← His accent is very Oxbridge. b) Secondary word-class conversion 76 NOUNS: Mass noun ⇒ count noun two coffees, two cheeses, some paints, a better bread a difficulty, a miserable failure Count noun ⇒ mass noun an inch of pencil, a few square feet of floor Proper noun ⇒ common noun a Jeremiah, a latter day Plutarch, a Rolls-Royce, ten Players Edinburgh is the Athens of the north. He wore Wellingtons. There are several Cambridges in the world. Stative predication ⇒ dynamic predication He is a fool. He is being a fool. He is a hero. He is being a hero. VERBS: Intransitive verb ⇒ transitive verb run the business, march the prisoners, dive one’s head into the water, fly, slither, stop, turn, twist Transitive verb ⇒ intransitive verb The clock winds up at the back. Your book reads well. The table polishes up badly. Have you washed yet? (shave) We have eaten already. (cook, drink, hunt, knit, sew, write) ADJECTIVES: Non-gradable adjectives ⇒ gradable adjectives 77 He’s more English than the English. Pronunciation Lenis and fortis consonants (lengthening of preceding vowel in verbs and shortening in nouns) Change in vowel (gradation) Noun Verb Noun Verb house house thief thieve advice advise belief believe use use relief relieve abuse abuse mouth mouth grief grieve sheath sheathe shelf shelve teeth teethe half halve wreath wreathe vowel change noun verb e ⇒ i: breath breathe ɪ ⇒ aɪ emphasis emphasise ∧ ⇒ i: blood bleed u ⇒ i: food feed 78 Shift of stress (nouns, adjectives on the first syllable / verbs on the second syllable) abstract, compound, compress, conduct, confine, conflict, conscript, consort, construct, contest, contrast, convert, convict, digest, discard, discount, discourse, escort, export, extract, ferment, import, impress, incline, increase, insult, misprint, perfume, permit, pervert, present, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refill, refit, refund, regress, reject, resit, segment, survey, suspect, torment, transfer, transform, transplant, transport, upset Questions: What is conversion? What role does it play in English compared with Czech? What is the primary and the secondary word class? Render examples of the primary word class conversion. Render examples of the secondary word class conversion. What role does the pronunciation of segments play in the word class conversion? What role does the placement of the stress play in the word class conversion? 79 Abbreviations Basically there are two types of abbreviations: initialisms and acronyms. Initialism Particular items which are spoken as individual letters - also called alphabetism. Some use only one initial letter (e.g. TB), some two (e.g. PhD), and some use even first two letters of the second element (e.g. GHQ). Acronyms: Initialisms which are pronounced as single words (e.g. NATO, UNESCO, UNPROFOR). They are always without periods. Other types of abbreviation are clipping, blending and consonantism . Clipping It is a subtraction of one or more syllables from a word. Original word Clipped on the left Clipped on the right Clipped on either side telephone phone airplane plane omnibus bus photograph photo advert ad taxicab taxi examination exam memorandum memo refrigerator fridge influenza flu 80 81 Blending It is a similar process to compounding but at least one constituent is fragmentary. Consonantism and facetious forms Words are formed by consonants with a minimum use of vowels. They are used mainly in chats and mobile messaging (texting). Example: Luvtlk: Ltl Bt of Luv Txt Wan2tlk? Ltl Bt of Txt Msgs u nvr no mght b usfl Cllr = councillor Abbreviations used in texting: Blend Expression in full bit binary digit breathalyser breath analyser electrocute electro execute heliport helicopter airport motel motor hotel paratroops parachute troops smog smoke and fog tgif thank god it’s friday brb be right back cmg call me god btdt been there done that kcmg kindly call me god btw by the way afaik as far as I know cm call me 82 atw at the weekend cul8r see you later bbl be back later dk don’t know bcnu be seeing you f? friends b4 before fotcl falling off the chair laughing 83 fwiw for what it’s worth np no problem fy for you oic oh I see fya for your amusement otoh on the other hand fyi for your information pmji pardon my jumping in g grin rofl rolling on the floor gal get a life rofl rolling on the floor laughing gd&r grinning, ducking and running smtoe sets my teeth on edge gmta great minds think alike s!mt!!oe!! stronger version of smote gr8 great swdyt so what do you think hhok ha ha only kidding thx, tnx, tx thanks ianal I am not a lawer, but … tia thanks in advance icwum I see what you mean tmot trust me on this imho in my humble opinion ttyl talk to you later imnsho in my not so humble opinion imo in my opinion ttytt to tell you the truth iow in other words wadr with all due respect jam just a minute wrt with respect to jk just kidding wu what’s up? kc keep cool x! typical woman lol laughing out loud y! typical man 84 AAAAAA – Association for the Alleviation of Asinine Abbreviations and Absurd Acronyms Key words: abbreviation, initialism, acronym, consonantism, blending 85 7. Multi-word expressions Collocations Definition A habitual co-occurrence (or mutual selection) of lexical items. Collocations take into account the node (key word) and the span (lexical variety the node is linked to). Can all the lexical juxtapositions be considered collocations? In fact there are also free combinations, such as I like apples / potatoes /, etc. Lexical items in lexical collocations are always, to some degree, mutually predictable. We commit a murder but we do not commit a home assignment. Sequences with minimal variety like run amok are referred to as fixed expressions or idioms. LINE (the node) draw a ~, broken ~, contour ~, crooked ~, curved ~, dotted ~, fine ~, thin ~, heavy ~, thick ~, horizontal ~, parallel ~, perpendicular ~, solid ~, unbroken ~, straight ~, vertical ~, wavy ~ (the span) POLICY adhere to a ~, follow a ~, hew to a ~, pursue a ~, take a ~, firm ~, hard ~, official ~, party ~ FLATTERING TALK give someone a ~, hand someone a ~ WIRE, PIPE, CONDUIT fuel ~, oil ~, sewage ~, steam ~, telegraph ~, telephone ~, high-voltage ~, power ~ BOUNDARY city ~, county ~, snow ~, squall ~, state ~, town-ship ~, tree ~, base~, end ~, foul ~, goal ~, service ~, side ~, at a ~, on a ~ 86 ESTABLISHED POSITION hold a ~, battle ~, cease-fire ~, enemy ~s, at a ~, on a ~ CONVEYOR BELT assembly ~, production ~, OCCUPATION what ~ are you in? CONTOUR ~s of a ship LIMIT hold the ~, draw the ~, keep the ~ TURN, ORDER in ~ for ALIGNMENT in ~, out of ~ CONFORMITY to the ~, bring someone into ~, keep someone in~, get into ~, get out of ~, in ~ with DYNASTY establish a ~, found a ~, unbroken ~, fine ~, nebulous ~, thin ~ TENDENCY along certain ~s, on certain ~s DIVISION cross a ~, colour ~ ROPE throw a ~ to someone, plumb ~ 87 CORD, FISHING DEVICE cast a ~, reel in a ~, reel out a ~, fishing ~ NOTE drop a someone a ~, get a ~ on someone, carry a ~, handle a ~, introduce a ~, discontinue a ~, drop a ~, complete ~, full ~ TELEPHONE CONNECTION get a ~, give someone a ~, the ~ is busy, the ~ is engaged, outside ~, party ~, hot ~ PATH follow a ~ (of reasoning), follow the ~ (of least resistance) ROUTE introduce a new ~, discontinue a ~, feeder ~, main ~, bus ~, commuter ~, high-speed ~, steamship ~, streetcar ~, tram ~, supply ~s UNIT OF TEXT deliver a ~, go over one’s ~s, rehearse one’s ~s, fluff one’s ~s, dull ~ ROW OF CHARACTERS indent a ~, insert a ~, read between the ~s ROW form a ~, picket ~, police ~, receiving ~ QUEUE (AmE) form a ~, buck (push into) a ~, get into ~, wait in ~, checkout ~, chow (= food) ~ (Benson, Benson, Ilson: The BBI Combinatory English Dictionary of English, 1986) 88 In principle we can classify collocations in terms of their occurrence in the phrase. Collocations in the noun phrase She has blond hair. *She has a blond car. *She has beige hair. She has a beige car. large/big/great/ problem, amount, shame, town, city, country Collocations in the verb phrase Do: the housework, some gardening, the washing up, homework, your best, the shopping, the cooking, business with Make: arrangements, an agreement, a suggestion, a decision, a cup of tea, war, love, an attempt, a phone call, the best of, an effort, an excuse, a mistake, a bed, a profit, a loss, the most of, a noise, an impression, a success of, a point of, allowance for, a gesture, a face, fun of, a fuss of, a go of Come to: an agreement, a conclusion, a standstill, an end, a decision, blows, to terms with, one’s senses Come into: bloom, flower, contact, a fortune, money, a legacy, operation, sight, view, power, existence, fashion, use Put: your foot down, all your eggs in one basket, your mind to, two and two together, something in a nutshell, someone’s back up, a put-up job Set: his heart/sights on, fire to, on fire, foot in, in her ways, a good example The knowledge of collocations is the knowledge of which words are most likely to occur together. It is a question of typicality and that is why statements about collocations cannot be absolute (the marked and the unmarked meaning). 89 Collocations in poetry – creative collocations (usually adjective-noun collocations are broken) After the Funeral (Dylan Thomas) […] Her flesh was meek as milk But this skyward statue With the wild breast and Blessed and gigant skull Is carved from her in a room With a wet window In a fiercely mourning house In a crooked year. […] Fourteen Carols, XIV (Lawrence Durrell) […] The puffins sit in a book: the muffins are molten: The crass clock chimes, Timely the hour and deserved. […] muffins + molten crass + clock deserved + hour Humour I can hear neighing; it must be your mother. Blankety-blank It was a very popular show on BBC in the 1980s. Participants had to fill in a missing item in a phrase. It was based on everyday knowledge of collocations. British public considered it a most egalitarian of TV games. 90 Proverbs Definition It is a short, pithy, rhythmical saying expressing a general belief (using alliteration, rhythm, rhyme). General Children should be seen and not heard. Still waters run deep Once bitten, twice shy. Look before you leap. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A friend in need is a friend indeed. Curiosity killed the cat. Ask no questions, hear no lies. The pen is mightier that the sword. Scottish Fuils and bairns never ken when they’re weel aff. (Fools, children, well off) You canna tak clean water out o a foul wall. American There’s no such thing as a horse that can’t be rode or a cowboy that can’t be throwed. Another day, another dollar. A friend in power is a friend lost. Never trust a fella that wears a suit. Puttin’feathers on a buzzard don’t make it no eagle. Too many Eskimos, too few seals. Here are a few common English proverbs. We can analyse them in comparison to the mother tongue. Don’t count your chickens before they hatch. Never judge a book by its cover. Never look a gift horse in the mouth. Take care of the pence and the pounds will take care of themselves. When the cat’s away, the mice will play. You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make it drink. 91 One swallow doesn’t make a summer. There is no smoke without fire. Too many cooks spoil the broth. People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. Many hands make light work. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. All that glitters is not gold. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. Idioms Definition The expression that is a unit of meaning and that is grammatically and lexically fixed/frozen. Its meaning cannot be deduced by examining the meanings of the constituent lexemes. Foreign language speakers have to be cautious in the usage of idioms due to a seeming similarity. Examples: cast (one’s) pearls before swine (not Czenglish throw pearls to swines) Put a sock in it! (only the fixed form is acceptable; not on, stockings, etc.) Classification Adjectives and adverbs bad blood, big mouth, dead drunk, high and low, an old flame Nouns in the end, on/off line, bottom line, in a word Pairs of adjectives alive and kicking, rough and ready, safe and sound 92 Pairs of nouns aches and pains, beer and skittles, board and lodging, body and soul, by dribs and drabs, give and take, hustle and bustle, man to man Pairs of adverbs back to front, by and large, more or less, to and fro Pairs of verbs do or die, forgive and forget, live and let live, sink or swim, wait and see Verbal idioms wipe the floor with someone, sit on the fence Animals a busy bee, an early bird, a home bird, a cat nap, bug someone, chicken feed, chicken out, be no chicken, count one’s chickens, dog tired, you can’t teach an old dog new tricks, barking dogs seldom bite, a fly in the ointment, cook someone’s goose, hold your horses Colours be in the black, black and blue, a black list, a black sheep, a black spot, blue blood, true blue, be green, be in the red, see red Number, size, measurement one’s number two, one’s opposite number, one at a time, be in two minds Parts of the body twist someone’s arm, with open arms, blood is thicker than water, in cold blood, new blood, the brain drain, be all ears, keep an eye on something, have egg on one’s face, get one’s fingers burnt, set a foot wrong, at first hand, from head to toe, by heart, pull someone’s leg, by the skin of one’s teeth, step on someone’s toes, hold one’s tongue, fight tooth and nail 93 Comparisons as bald as a coot, as black as coal, as black as pitch, as busy as a bee, as clean as a new pin, as drunk as a lord, as fresh as a daisy, as greedy as a pig, as mad as a hatter, be like a bull in a china shop, be like a cat on hot bricks, fit like a glove, drink like a fish, fight like cats and dogs, have a memory like a sieve, sleep like a log Occurrence Quite surprisingly English idioms show a rather low frequency, even in conversation. If we come across them, they rather represent a stereotyped dialogue in fiction than in real conversation. The most common verbs which form idioms in the combination with nouns are have, take, and make. Foreign speakers of English should be aware of the fact that books and dictionaries of idioms usually contain idioms which are slangy, rare or even out of date. 94 Phrasal verbs Definition A phrasal verb is a unit comprised of a verb and an adverb particle. Examples: The pain gradually wore off. I had to look after the children. They broke out of prison. Kroop tried to talk her out of it. Syntactic aspects transitive verb + adverb Don’t give the story away, silly! I wouldn’t want to give away any secrets. object = pronoun He cleaned it up. I answered him back and took my chances. transitive verb + adverb + preposition Multinational companies can play individual markets off against each other. I’ll take you up on that generous invitation. placement of the object She switched off the light. She switched the light off. Give me back my watch. She switched it off. Particles can go before or after noun objects (except multi-word objects which go always after the particle). But particles can only go after pronoun objects. 95 List of inseparable phrasal verbs (the adverb particle cannot be separated from the verb by another sentence element): 96 back out of – desert, fail to keep a promise bear down on - lean on, browbeat bear on – have, to do with bear up under – endure break in on – interrupt break into – interrupt call for - come to get, require care for – like, guard, supervise, maintain carry on with – continue catch up with - cover the distance between oneself and check up on – examine, verify come across - find accidentally come along with – accompany, make progress come by - find accidentally come down with - become ill with come out with – utter, produce come up with – utter, produce count on - rely on cut in on – interrupt disagree with - cause illness or discomfort to do away with – abolish do without - deprive oneself of drop in at/on – visit casually without planning drop out of – leave, quit face up to – acknowledge fall behind in – lag, not progress at required pace fall back on - use for emergency purpose fall out with - quarrel with fill in for - substitute for get ahead of – surpass, beat get around – evade, avoid get away with - do without being caught or punished get by with - manage with a minimum of effort get down to - become serious about, consider get in - enter (a vehicle) get off - descend from, leave get on - enter (a vehicle), mount get on with - proceed with get through with - terminate, finish go back on – desert, fail to keep (a promise) go for - like a great deal go in for - be interested in, participate in go on with – continue go over – review go with - harmonize with, look pleasing together go without - abstain from hang around - remain idly in the vicinity of hear from - receive a communication from hear of - learn about (sometimes accidentally) hit on - discover accidentally hold on to - grasp tightly hold out against – resist keep at - persevere at keep to - persist in, continue keep up with - maintain the pace lie down on – evade, fail to do live on - support or sustain oneself by means of live up to - maintain the standard demanded of look after - take care of look back on - remember nostalgically look down on - feel superior to look forward to – anticipate 97 look up to – respect, admire make up for - compensate for pass on – transmit pick on – tease, bully play up to - flatter for personal advantage put up with – tolerate read up on - search out information on run against - compete against in an election run away with – leave, escape from run for - campaign for see about – consider, arrange see to – arrange, supervise settle on - decide on, choose stand for – represent, permit stand up for – support, demand stand up to – resist stick to – persist stick up for – support, defend take after – resemble talk back to - answer impolitely talk over – discuss tell on - report misbehaviour to authority touch on - mention briefly turn into – become wait on – serve wait up for - not go to bed while waiting for watch out for - be careful for 98 Occurrence Phrasal verbs are common in fiction and conversation. They are rather rare in academic prose. About 75% of the overall number are activity verbs: Intransitive: come on, get up, sit down, come over, stand up, step up, go off, shut up, come along, sit up, go ahead, walk in, move in, look out, get on Transitive: get in, pick up, put on, make up, carry out, take up, take on, get back, get off, look up, set up, take off, take over, bring in, build up, fill in, keep up, pull up, pull down, put in, put up, set out, sort out, take away, take in, take out, turn on, wake up, work out Other common phrasal verbs: Mental transitive: make out Communicative transitive: bring up, call in Occurrence intransitive: break down, grow up, set in Aspectual intransitive: carry on, go ahead, hang on Aspectual transitive: keep on, start off The most common adverbial particles in phrasal verbs are: up, out, on, in, off and down 99 Prepositional verbs Definition Prepositional verbs consist of the base verb and the preposition. Classification NP + verb + preposition + NP I have never even thought about it. NP + verb + NP + verb+ preposition + NP I think the media is falsely accused of a lot of things. Most common prepositional verbs: Activity verbs: look at, look for, go for, go through, wait for, deal with, pay for, get into, turn to, play with, stare at, glance at, smile at, play for, serve as; be applied to, be used in, do NP for, be made of, be aimed at, send NP to, give NP to, be derived from, fill NP with, be accused of, be charged with, be jailed for, be divided into, obtain NP from, use NP as Communication verbs : talk to, talk about, speak to, ask for, refer to, write to, speak of, call for; say to NP, be expressed in Mental verbs: be known as, be seen in, be regarded as, be seen as, be considered as, be defined as Causative verbs: lead to, come from, result in, contribute to, allow for; be required for Occurrence verbs: look like, happen to, occur in Verbs of existence or relationship: depend on, belong to, account for, consist of, differ from; be based on, be involved in, be associated with, be included in, be composed of 100 Most productive prepositional verbs: Lexical verb Number of prepositional forms get 5 look 5 work 4 go 3 know 3 hear 3 use 3 Preposition Number of prepositional verbs to 21 with 14 for 16 in 13 on 12 into 7 about 6 of 6 101 at 6 102 Phraseological units Definition Phraseological units are recurring word chains that can usually be found in literature. Sources: Literature make a virtue of necessity, marriage is a lottery, far from the madding crowd, fools rush where angels fear to tread, a nation of shop-keepers, small talk, anything for a quiet life, how goes the enemy, catch somebody red-handed, a skeleton in the closet (cupboard) Proper names: Man Friday, Uriah Heap, Sherlock Holmes, the Old Lady of Threadneedle Street The Bible at the eleventh hour, cast pearls before swine, the olive branch, rule with a rod of iron, cast the first stone at somebody, daily bread, thirty pieces of silver, a wolf in sheep’s clothing, see eye to eye, a doubting Thomas, forbidden fruit, a prodigal son, the voice of crying in the wilderness Classical mythology Achilles’heel, the apple of discord, the golden age, a labour of Sisyphus, sow dragon’s teeth, the Trojan horse, rest on one’s laurels, the die is cast, the sinews of war Various languages after us the deluge, all roads lead to Rome, burn the candle on both ends, it goes without saying, let us return to our muttons, punctuality is the politeness of princes, he laughs best who laughs last, let sleeping dogs lie, cry havoc, curry favour, French letters 103 a storm in a cup of tea, lead somebody by the nose, necessity is the mother of invention, blood and iron, the mailed fist, one’s place in the sun, the fifth column, the knight of the Rueful Countenance, tilt at wind mills, still life, every dog is a lion at home, lose face American English blaze a trail, bread and butter, sell like hot cakes, sit on the fence, strike oil, time is money, the almighty dollar, bury the hatchet, dig up the hatchet, smoke the pipe of peace, the call of the wind, gone with the wind, a big stick policy, pie in the sky, the cold war 104 Catch phrase Definition It is a phrase of a certain origin that people adopt in everyday conversation (it is catchy). Its role is to facilitate social communication. Example: What’s up doc? – Bugs Bunny Here’s another fine mess you’ve gotten me into – Oliver Hardy You cannot be serious. – John McEnroe Phone home. – ET Elementary, my dear Watson. – Sherlock Holmes Houston, we have a problem. - Apollo 13 Slogans Originally a battle-cry of a Scottish clan. Linguistically they are like proverbs – short with a strong rhythm. Safety first. Beans means Heinz. Ban the Bomb. Walls have ears. Make love not war. When you need aspirin drink Disprin. Guinness is good for you. Put a tiger in your tank. (Esso) It´s fingerlickin’good. (Kentucky Fried Chicken) Miscellaneous in the long run, drink like fish, sleep like a log, have something up one’s sleeve, to cut the Gordian knot, hit the nail on the head, sink and swim, rob Peter to pay Paul, make a mountain of a molehill 105 Lexical bundles (lexical phrases) Owing to the character of the English language a new approach has been adopted. It is the concept of the lexical bundles. Definition Lexical bundles are identified empirically as the combinations of words that in fact recur most commonly in a given register. The most common type of lexical bundles consists of three words. It is actually a sort of extended collocational association. Four-word, five-word, and six-word bundles have a significant phrasal character and are obviously less frequent. For example, the four-word lexical bundles represent only 10% of the three-word lexical bundles and by the same token we can speak about the fourand five-word bundles. Proportional distribution of four-word lexical bundles across the major structural patterns in each register (Biber: LGSWE) CON V ACA D example patterns more widely used in conversation personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+ complement clause) 44% — I don't know what pronoun/NP (+ auxiliary) + copula be (+) 8% 2% it was in the (auxiliary+) active verb (+) 13% — have a look at yes-no and wh-question fragment 12% — can / have a 106 (verb +) wh-clause fragment 4% — know what l mean CON V ACA D example patterns more widely used in academic prose noun phrase with post-modifier fragment 4% 30% the nature of the preposition + noun phrase fragment 3% 33% as a result of anticipatory it + VP/adjective P (+ complement-clause) — 9% it is possible to passive verb + PP fragment — 6% it is based on the (verb +) that-clause fragment 1% 5% should be noted that CON V ACAD example patterns used in both registers (verb/adjective +) to-clause fragment 5% 9% are likely to be 107 108 Key words: collocation, proverb, idiom, phrasal verb, inseparable phrasal verb, prepositional verb, phraseological unit, catch phrase, slogan, lexical bundle Questions: What are the principal components of the collocation? Give an example. Render five examples of collocations in the NP. Render five examples of collocations in the VP. What role does the collocation play in poetry? What is used in proverbs in terms of the spoken form? Render two English proverbs which have a full equivalent in Czech, another two with a partial equivalent and the last two with a zero equivalent in Czech. What are idioms and how can you classify them? Give some examples of idioms with colours and parts of the body. What can you say about the frequency of idioms in everyday language? What are phrasal verbs and what role do they play in English? What can you say about the placement of the object? In which register are they used most often? Which type of verb is mostly used used as a phrasal verb? What are prepositional verbs and how do we classify them? Which types of verbs are used most often in this category? Render examples. Render examples of phraseological units which come from the Bible and classical mythology. What is the catch phrase and what is its role? Render a few examples of the catch phrase in English and Czech. What are slogans? Render a few examples. What are lexical bundle and how do we classify them? Render four examples of four-word lexical bundles. 109 8. Englishes English is a national language used in Great Britain, Ireland, U.S.A., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It is also a priority language in Gibraltar, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Singapore, and Jamaica, Bahamas and many other places. Lexical differences of various forms of English: Irish English bainne – milk ball of malt - a glass of whiskey bláthach –buttermilk bonnyclabber - soured milk borreen-brack - a cake with currants and raisins in it boxty - pancake made from raw potatoes broughan - oatmeal porridge coddle - a kind of stew made up of meat and vegetables colcannon - dish of white cabbage and potatoes spuds - potatoes tea - in Hiberno-English main evening meal Scottish English - Scots bairn – child ben – mountain cairn - a heap of stones set up as a landmark capercailzie - a large grouse ceilidh - a party/gathering claymore - a two-handed sword dike/dyke – wall around a field gillie - a hunting or fishing guide glen - a small, narrow, secluded valley ingle - a fire burning in a hearth loch – lake laird – landowner lad – boy lass – girl eye – yes pibroch - a piece of music for the bagpipe sporran - a large pouch for men, commonly of fur, worn, suspended from a belt, in front of the kilt 110 Restricted only to Scots airt - direction ay- always dominie- teacher dreich- dreary fash- bother high-heid-yin- boss janitor- caretaker kirk- church outwith- outside of pinkie- little finger swither- hesitate Difference in meaning Language of law English Scots meaning scheme local government, housing estate mind memory, recollection travel go on foot gate road England and Wales Scotland barrister advocate arbitrator arbiter arrest apprehension blackmail extortion arson fire-raising defendant defender injuction interdict 111 alimony aliment probate confirmation manslaughter culpable homicide tort delict 112 Welsh English del – dear Duw – God eisteddfod – art festival llymru – porridge dish nain – grandma rise the drink – buy the drink taid - grandpa Australian English It is estimated that circa 10 000 English words are of Australian origin. banksia – any Australian shrub or tree of the genus Banksia, having alternate leaves and dense, cylindrical flower heads barramundi – fish, black swan brush – dense vegetation, bush, bushman, bushranger galah – an Australian cockatoo (Kakatoe roseicapilla) having rosecolored underparts mallee – tree crook – bad, unpleasant, ill arvo – afternoon dinkum – true, genuine bushed – lost to waddy – attack with a club bowyang – trouser strap paddock – field tube – tin of beer pommy – English immigrant Pommyland – Australia swagman – hobo ,tramp billabong – pond coolibah – eucalyptus tucker – food cobber – mate chook – chicke lay-weekender – holiday cottage drongo – fool do a U-y – do a U-turn joker – person larrikin – hooligan poofter – effeminate male sheila – girl dingo – dog kookaburra - an Australian kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) having a loud, harsh cry that resembles laughter, also called laughing jackass wallaby - small and mediumsized kangaroos corroboree – ceremonial dance boomerang koal Idioms: bald as bandicoot, scarce as rocking-horse manure, look like a consumptive kangaroo, bring a plate (bring some food to 113 share), full as a goog (drunk), amber (fluid, beer) New Zealand English bach – holiday house dwang – timber floor strut hoot – money superette – small supermarket wahine – woman wop-wops – suburbs hurray – good-bye lamburger Canadian English pogey – dole clumper – small iceberg bush pilot – pilot supplying people in distant places habitant – French Canadian tuque – cap bateau – small boat Indian English (including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka) change room – dressing room to four-twenty – cheat cousin-sister – cousin co-brother – wife's sister's husband eve-teasing – teasing of girls jawan – soldier tiffin – lunch crore – 10 mil. lakh – 100 000 tonga – two-wheeled vehicle dandy - man who is excessively concerned about his clothes and appearance ricksha – vehicle sari – dress peon – messanger, foot soldier sahib – sir ghee – a kind of liquid butter, which is used esp. in the cooking of India, made from the milk of cows or buffaloes and clarified by boiling Sri – Mr dhobi – washerman lathi – a heavy pole or stick, esp. one used as a club by police pukha – very good 114 South African English veld - the open country, bearing grass, bushes, or shrubs, or thinly forested koppie – small hill dorp – village biltong - strips of lean meat dried in the open air baas – boss bioscope – cinema brak – salty soil lekker – excellent kraal - an enclosure for cattle and other domestic animals in southern Africa, a village of the native peoples of South Africa, usually surrounded by a stockade or the like and often having a central space for livestock Pidgin English It is a system of communication which developed among people who did not share the same language. Pidgin English covers altogether 31 forms: Gambian Creole, Sierra Leone Krio, Liberian Creole and Kru, Ghanaian Pidgin English, Togolese Pidgin English, Nigerian Pidgin English, Cameroon Pidgin English, Fernando Po Pidgin English, American Indian Pidgin English, Black English, Gullah (North of Florida), Bahamian, Belizean, Costa Rican, Jamaican, Leeward Islands Creole (Caribbic), Windward Islands Creole (Caribbic), Barbadian, Trinibagian, Creolese, Surinamese Creoles, Hawaiian Creole, Indian Pidgins (India), China Coast Pidgin, Bamboo Pidgin (Japan), Tok Pisin (New Guinea), Solomon Islands Pisin, Bislama, Australian Creoles, Pitcairnese and Norfolkese, Tristan da Cunha 115 Example: Tok Pisin (Papua New Guinea – New Testament, Crystal) King i amamas tru. Em i tokim oI i mas pulim Daniel i kam antap. Na King i singautim ol bigpela man i laik kilim Daniel i dai. Yupela i laik bagarapim Daniel a? Orait mi bekim yupela stret. Yupela gat, putim ol long hul bilong laion. Mi darais, mi tokim olgeta pipel bilong Bebilon, ol i mas givim biknem long God bilong Daniel. Daniel i wok inap long em i dai na i helpim […] Key to vocabulary: a – emphasis amamas – be happy (Malay) antap – on top autim – made bagarapim – ruin (bugger up) bekim – give back bigpela – big fellow bilip – believe bilong – belong bosim - rule dai – die em – he/him gat – get gutpela – good fellow inap – can (enough) kilim – kil laik – want lo – law mas – must mi – I na – and ol – them all orait – all right, fix pipel – people singautim – call/shout stret – straight away tokim – tell tru – very much wanpela – one fellow wok – work yupela – you fellow Tok Pisin is spoken by 1 million people and spread by a local newspaper Wantok. 116 Questions: What are Englishes? Render a list of Englishes you know. Give a few examples of differences in meaning between BrE and Scots. Render a few examples of Welsh, Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, Indian and South African English. How many English lexical items come from Australia? What is Pidgin English? Where is it spoken and by how many people? 117 9. American English word stock American English is not considered a separate language but a geographical variety of English used in the United States. Its grammar and vocabulary is practically the same because it has its literary standardized form (Standard American). Americanism Definition • a word which originated in America, having a different meaning in Britain (e.g. elevator) • a word which originated in America and is now used in BrE (e.g. supermarket) • a word originally British, now used in America; in Britain rather in a dialect (e.g. apartment) Borrowings BrE: A-level, back bencher, commoner, au-pair, bank holiday, constable, bloody, digs Dutch: boss, waffle Indian: totem, igloo, kayak, moccasin, canoe, wigwam, squaw, toboggan; loans/calques: bury the hatchet, as long as the grass grows, pale face, peacepipe, on the warpath French: gopher German: Diesel, schlag, schnaps, kirschwasser, bratwurst, blitzkrieg, gestapo, hamburger, heimweh, Gesundheit (as a greeting), Katzenjammer (cf. Czech kocovina), rucksack, aspirin, pretzel, wiener, bock Italian: pizza, antipasto, mafia, Cosa Nostra, capo Scandinavian: smorgasboard - buffet meal of various hot and cold hors d'oeuvres, salads, casserole dishes, meats, cheeses Slavic: kielbasa, robot, piroshky, kolacky Spanish: albino, alligator, bravado, canyon, creole, embargo, hurricane, macho, mulatto, peccadillo, savannah, tornado; adobe, alfalfa, armadillo, barbecue, bonanza, bonito, bronco, buckaroo, burro, corral, dago, desperado, fiesta, filibuster, frijoles, grandee, Gringo, hacienda, hombre, javelina, lasso, mustang, patio, plaza, poncho, pueblo, ranch, rodeo, Sierra, sombrero, stampede, taco, tequila, tortilla, vaquero, vigilante 118 Yiddish: bagel, Chanuka, ghetto, kibbutz, kosher, menorah, chutzpah, goyshe, klutz, schlemiel, schlimazel, schmedrick, schiksa, schmaltz, schmeikle, schmuck, schnorre, schtick, shekels, schlock Other: shogun, tycoon (Japanese); alpaca, condor, cougar, coyote, curacao (originally South American) Differences in meaning (approximate) British English American English Same word, different meaning homely domestic, down to earth ugly, plain pavement footpath road surface Same word, additional meaning in one variety – added in US bathroom bath, shower toilet Same word, additional meaning in one variety – added in GB leader an editorial one who leads rug a thick wrap, coverlet a thick carpet Same word, different style, connotation, frequency autumn common uncommon, poetic (fall) fortnight common poetic (two weeks) Same concept or item but different word tap faucet silencer muffler off-licence liquor store estate car station wagon custard pudding 119 petrol gas 120 Selection of American and British words American English British English American English British English absorbent cotton cotton wool French doors French windows administration government French fries chips airplane aeroplane garbage rubbish allowance pocket money garters suspenders aluminum aluminium gasoline petrol antenna aerial girl Scout girl guide apartment building block of flats grab bag lucky dip Archie Bunker Alf garnet grade crossing level crossing ash can dustbin ground/chopped meat mince ass arse hard liquor spirits auto car homemaker home help baby carriage pram hot water heater immersion heater back-up tailback charge account credit account baggage luggage check bill baseboard skirting board checkers draughts bathroom lavatory/toilet checking account current account bathtub bath ice cream ice beltway ring road instalment plan hire purchase 121 Big Dipper the Plough intermission interval bill note intern houseman billboard hoarding internal revenue service inland revenue billfold wallet Jack knave (cards) biscuit scone jell-O jelly blue jeans jeans (blue denim) jelly roll Swiss roll bobby pin hair pin John Q Public Joe Public bookstore bookshop kerosene paraffin Bronx cheer raspberry labor union trade union building permit planning permission lawyer solicitor bulletin board notice board leash lead bureau chest of drawers lemon soda lemonade business suit lounge suit liability insurance third-party insurance caboose guard’s van licence plate number plate call-in phone-in line queue can tin mail post candy sweets mailbox pillar box car carriage, wagon math maths car/automobile motorcar molasses treacle carryall holdall mom, mommy mum, mummy casket coffin moving van removal van catsup ketchup nail polish nail varnish 122 clothespin clothes peg news dealer newsagent comforter eiderdown nightgown nightdress conductor (train) guard orchestra stalls cookie biscuit pants suit trouser suit corn maize pantyhose tights cot camp bed pit stone (fruit) cotton candy candy floss popsicle, ice ice lolly county seat county town public school state school crepe pancake racetrack racecourse crib cot railroad railway crossing guard lollipop man/ woman raise rise (salary) crosstie tie sleeper ramp slip road (trouser) cuff turn-up (trousers) rest room WC depot railway Station row boat rowing boat Derby Bowler hat row house terraced house desk clerk reception clerk rummage sale jumble sale detour diversion run ladder (hosiery) dial tone dialling tone Rutabaga Swede diaper nappy sailboat sailing boat dish towel tea towel salesclerk shop assistant divided highway dual carriageway saltshaker saltcellar 123 dollhouse doll’s house scallion spring onion dormitory hall of residence shopping cart trolley draft conscription shrimp cocktail prawn cocktail drapes curtains sidewalk pavement driver’s licence driving licence signal tower signal box druggist pharmacist sneakers trainers dry goods drapery/soft goods solitaire patience (cards) dump truck tipper lorry squash marrow eighth note quaver stroller pushchair electric cord flex subway tube elementary school primary school subway underground elevator lift sweater/ pullover jumper emergency cord communication cord swinging door swing door engineer engine driver telephone booth telephone box/ kiosk eraser rubber telephone pole telegraph pole exhaust fan extractor fan tick-tack-toe noughts and crosses expressway motorway track line (rail) fall autumn track meet sports (school) fanny buttocks traffic circle roundabout faucet tap truck stop transport café fender mudguard underpants pants 124 University teachers fire department fire brigade underpass/ tunnel subway first floor ground floor undershirt vest flashlight torch vacation holiday flat puncture valve stopcock floor lamp standard lamp vest waistcoat flutist flautist wrench spanner football American football zero nought freeway motorway zero, nothing nil freight train goods train zip code post code United States Great Britain Instructor (Assistant) lecturer Assistant professor Senior lecturer Associate professor Reader Professor Professor 125 Differences in pronunciation (segmental pronunciation) Form Received pronunciation General American anchovy 'æntʃəvi / æn'tʃəʊvi 'æntʃo ʊvi ate et / eit eit chassis ʃæsi tʃæsi clerk kla:k klɜ:k chopper tʃɒpə tʃa:pər Derby da:bi dɜ:bi fracas fræka: freikəs geyser gi:zə / gaizə gaizə gossamer gɒsəmə ga:səmər goulash gu:læʃ gu:la:ʃ leisure leʒə li:ʒə lever li:və levə lieutenant lef'tenənt lu:'tenənt missile misail misəl progress prəʊgres / prɒgres pra:gres project prɒdʒekt / prəʊdʒekt pra:dʒɪkt route ru:t / raʊt raʊt schedule ʃedju:l skedʒu:l tomato tə'ma:təʊ tə'meɪtoʊ vase va:z veɪs 126 wrath rɒθ ræθ 127 Differences in pronunciation (placement of stress) Money (informal) Received pronunciation General American Received pronunciation General American address address laboratory laboratory advertisement advertisement magazine magazine ballet ballet moustache moustache café cafe premier premier cigarette cigarette princess princess controversy controversy research research debris debris reveille reveille frontier frontier translate translate garage garage valet valet inquiry inquiry weekend weekend United States Great Britain $100 a century $10 a tenner £ 10 a tenner $ 5 a fiver £ 5 a fiver $1 a buck £ 1 a quid 25¢ a quarter 10 p ten penny 10¢ a dime 6 p sixpence 128 5¢ a nickel 2 p two-penny 1¢ a penny 1 p penny 129 British English (old names): £ 1 = 20 shillings (s.) 1 shilling = 12 pennies (d.) 21 shillings = 1 guinea shilling = bob 2s6d = half a crown sixpence= tanner two shillings = two-bob, florin two-penny = t¿pnz half penny = heIpni billion = 109 (US) milliard = 109 (GB) trillion = 1012(US) billion = 1012 (GB) Questions: What is the Americanism? Render at least twenty expressions which have a different form in British and American Englishes. Render a table of parallel university positions in Britain and USA. Render differences in segmental pronunciation of the following words: Form Received pronunciation General American clerk Derby geyser leisure lieutenant medicine missile schedule 130 tomato vase wrath 131 Mark the stress in the following words: Received pronunciation General American Received pronunciation General American address address magazine magazine advertisement advertisement moustache moustache cigarette cigarette premier premier controversy controversy princess premier debris debris research princess frontier frontier translate research Inquiry Inquiry valet valet laboratory laboratory weekend translate 132 10. Sense relations Synonymy Definition Synonymy means that two or more lexemes have the same or similar meaning. There may be no such thing as a perfect synonym. Full synonymy (rare) greenhouse – hothouse kind – sort noun - substantive Close relation between collocations and synonyms Sentence with asterisks are incorrect in terms of wrong synonymy. Helen began/started to cry soon after they had left. *I couldn’t begin my mini; the battery was flat. *Before the world started, only God existed. rancid/rotten: rancid butter but rotten teeth kingly/regal/royal: royal mail Different syntactic behaviour of synonyms The plane leaves/departs from Gatwick, not Stansted. We left the museum at seven. *We departed the house at seven. Different functional styles of synonyms variola/smallpox professional/non-professional offspring/children/kids formal/neutral/informal insane/loony ……… salt/sodium chloride informal/technical Dialect difference and synonyms autumn/fall American/British English sandwich/butty standard/regional 133 Slang and synonyms Money: dough, bread, dosh, loot, brass, sponduliks Police: pigs, fuzz, cop(per)s, bill Drunk: pissed, sozzled, paralytic, legless, arsehold Stupid: wally, prat, nerd, jerk, plonker, pillock Lavatory: loo, lav, bog, john Drink: booze, plonk Drugs: fix, dope, grass, high, stone, snow, vitamin A, uppers Drug addict: stoner, waste case, pothead Prison: nick (prison), nark (informer), screw (warder) Sexual orientation: straight (heterosexual), fags/queers (homosexuals), dyke (lesbian) Racial and national slang: wasps (priviledged white American), jigaboos/jungle bunnies (Blacks), slant eyes (Asian), spics (Hispanic), wetbacks (Mexican/illegal immigrant to the US), chinks (Chinese), japs (Japanese) Professional slang and synonyms (US truckers) grandma lane slow lane doughnuts tyres motion lotion fuel five finger discount stolen goods eyeballs headlights super cola beer 134 Antonymy Definition Antonyms are lexemes which are opposite in meaning. Typology Complementary antonyms below - above absent - present borrow - lend buy – sell wife - husband Contrary antonyms hot – cold clean – dirty single – married first – last alive - dead Scales hot - warm - tepid - cold - icy wet - misty - dampish – dry Another classification is based on the form: a) root antonyms (lexemes with different roots): old – new rich – poor dear – expensive b) derivational antonyms (with affixes): useful – useless predictable – unpredictable conductor – non-conductor conduct – misconduct appear – disappear c) mixed: correct – incorrect – wrong married – unmarried - single 135 136 Co-occurrence of antonyms in one sentence The following expressions occur frequently in sentences: bad and good big and little black and white from bottom to top clean and dirty cold and hot dark and light deep and shallow dry and wet easy and hard empty and full far and near fast and slow few and many first and last happy and sad hard and soft heavy and light high and low Polysemy Definition One lexical item has a range of meanings (senses). Words have usually more than one meaning. Monosemantic words are rare – usually in technical and scientific usage (e.g. noun, phoneme, morpheme). Words are polysemantic only in the system of the language, in a particular utterance the meaning is limited. nut bear Synchronic polysemy • interest in the meanings which are representative and typical and clearly intelligible in isolation => basic meaning = first place in the dictionary, e.g. face - obličej • interest in meanings which can be clear only in certain contexts => figurative meaning, e.g. face – ciferník Diachronic polysemy • interest in various meanings acquired during its etymological development 137 Homonymy Definition Homonyms are lexical items that have the same form (spelling, pronunciation) but different meaning. Homonymy is a relation among lexemes while polysemy is among different meanings. Etymology of homonyms • different development of several meanings (e.g. flower x flour; skirt x shirt) • convergence of sounds (e.g. I – eye) • borrowing (e.g. port: porto – Portuguese, portus – Latin) • clipping (e.g. ad; fan) Typology Homonyms proper Proper homonyms are identical in spelling and pronunciation but different in meaning. Examples: bank, fair, toast Homophony Homophones are lexical items with the same pronunciation but different meaning. • lexical homonyms (e.g. son – sun, die – dye, tale – tail) • grammatical homonyms (e.g. he asked – he was asked) • word-class homonyms (e.g. to spring – spring, to fall – fall, to earn – urn) 4 and 3 element groups ride - write - right - rite sew - sow - so 138 Homonymic clash It is the basis for jokes riddles and puns. Example: What is ill eagle /ɪ'li:gl/? The eagle that is not well. Homography (a type of homonymy) Homographs are lexical items with the same spelling but different meaning. Examples: They lead them to victory Lead is a bluish heavy metal. She can tear his arguments like a piece of cloth. Her tear has no effect on him. Every Saturday morning they had a row. My son always sits in the first row. The wind was blowing in the westerly direction. Remember to wind the clock before you go to bed. "Homonyms are illustrated from the various meanings of the word bear (= animal, carry) or ear (of body, of corn). In these examples, the identity covers both the spoken and written forms, but it is possible to have partial homonymy (or heteronymy), where the identity is within a single medium, as in homophony and homography. When there is ambiguity between homonyms (whether non-deliberate or contrived, as in riddles and puns), a homonymic clash or conflict is said to have occurred." (David Crystal. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th ed. Blackwell, 2008) "The trouble is that, although helpful, these criteria are not totally compatible and do not go all the way. There are cases where we may think that the meanings are clearly distinct and that we therefore have homonymy, but which cannot be distinguished by the given linguistic formal criteria, e.g., charm may denote 'a kind of interpersonal attraction' and may also be used in physics denoting 'a kind of physical energy.' Not even the word bank, usually given in most textbooks as the archetypical example of homonymy, is clearcut. Both the 'financial bank' and the 'river bank' meanings derive by a process of metonymy and metaphor, respectively from Old French 139 banc 'bench.' Since bank in its two meanings belongs to the same part of speech and is not associated with two inflectional paradigms, the meanings of bank are not a case of homonymy by any of the above criteria. [. . .] Traditional linguistic criteria for distinguishing homonymy from polysemy, although no doubt helpful, in the end turn out to be insufficient." (Jens Allwood, "Meaning Potentials and Context: Some Consequences for the Analysis of Variation in Meaning." Cognitive Approaches to Lexical Semantics, ed. by Hubert Cuyckens, René Dirven, and John R. Taylor. Walter de Gruyter, 2003) "Dictionaries recognize the distinction between polysemy and homonymy by making a polysemous item a single dictionary entry and making homophonous lexemes two or more separate entries. Thus head is one entry and bank is entered twice. Producers of dictionaries often make a decision in this regard on the basis of etymology, which is not necessarily relevant, and in fact separate entries are necessary in some instances when two lexemes have a common origin. The form pupil, for instance, has two different senses, 'part of the eye' and 'school child.' Historically these have a common origin but at present they are semantically unrelated. Similarly, flower and flour were originally 'the same word,' and so were the verbs to poach (a way of cooking in water) and to poach 'to hunt [animals] on another person's land'), but the meanings are now far apart and all dictionaries treat them as homonyms, with separate listing. The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is not an easy one to make. Two lexemes are either identical in form or not, but relatedness of meaning is not a matter of yes or no; it is a matter of more or less." (Charles W. Kreidler, Introducing English Semantics. Routledge, 1998) Hyponymy and hyperonymy Definition Hyponymy is the relation between specific and general words, when the former is included in the latter (cat is a hyponym of animal and animal is a hyperonym of cat). 140 Other sense relations Parts and wholes Clothing: zip, button, hem, lining, cuff, collar Food: stalk, leaf, root, husk, shell, bone, seed Vehicle: wheel, brakes, engine, door, steering wheel Animal: hoof, mane, leg, feather, claw, tail House: bathroom, bedroom, loft, window, cellar Series Numbers Days of the week Months of the year Colours Hierarchies Army: 2nd lieutenant, lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, brigadier, major general, lieutenant general, general, field marshal Church: priest, bishop, archbishop, cardinal, pope Measurements: millimetre, centimetre, decimetre, metre, kilometre False friends (paronyms) Definition They are a form of surface lexical interference within one or between different languages. Common misuse Hyperonym Hyponyms vehicle van, car, lorry, motorcycle car hatchback, saloon, coupé, SUV season spring, summer, autumn, winter walk stroll, amble, trudge, treat, plod flower daffodil, rose, tulip, pansy 141 Within one language: invaluable – neocenitelný (vysoké hodnoty) priceless – compare with valueless, worthless ingenious – vynalézavý, duchaplný ingenuous – upřímný, nevinný, naivní, arch. vznešený Between languages: dome – dóm process – proces /soudní/ design – projektovat project – promítat castle – lock promotion – povýšení graduation – promoce broadcast – relace out-door patient department – ambulance graduate – absolvent manifestation – projev rally, demonstration – manifestace speech – projev relation – vztah evidence – důkaz records – evidence Transfer of meaning Similarity in temporal, spatial or other relation. Example: neck of the body, neck of the violin Metaphor Definition: transfer of meaning on the basis of external similarity of denotates (colour, shape, location, function, etc.) 142 Shape: bell (zvon - zvonek), comb (hřeben - hřebínek), mouth (ústa - ústí), pipe (píšťala - trubka), needle (jehla na šití i injekční) Colour: blood red (krvavě červený), chalk (křídově bílý), strawberry (jahodový) Location: foot (noha -úpatí), heel (pata - podpatek) Scope: drop(kapka - malé množství), heap (neuspořádané seskupení a velké množství) Function: hand (ruka - ručička), head (hlava - vedoucí), leg (noha - noha u stolu) Transfer of animal qualities to people ass, bear, cow, elephant, fox, silly goose, gorilla, louse, mule, rat, swine, chicken, mole Only in Czech: kos, jezevec, křeček, pavouk, straka, štika, vůl Transfer of animals to plants catkins, dandelion Only in Czech: holubinky, kuřátka, lišky, kozlík lékařský Transfer of body parts to things ear, eye, nose, tongue, tooth, neck, muzzle, arm, shoulder Transfer of things to the body chamber (heart chambers), drum (ear drum) 143 Metonymy Definition It is a semantic change when an attribute is used for the whole. chair – židle, předsednictví crown – koruna, monarchie hand – ruka, rukopis word – slovo, hovor Particularisation of abstract nouns administration –správa government – vláda Quality to its bearer youth – mládež sweet – sladkosti green – zeleň Material to product glasses – brýle oil – olejomalba mink – norková kožešina Place names 10 Downing Street, the Pentagon, Fleet Street, Whitehall, the White House, the Kremlin Contextual metonymy play a Dvořák, read Walter Scott, Waterloo, 4th July Synecdoche Definition A figure of speech in which the part is used for the whole or the whole is used for the part (e.g. wheels for car, creatures for cats). Key words: 144 sense relations, synonym, full synonymy, antonym, complementary antonym, contrary antonym, chains, root antonyms, derivational antonyms, cooccurrence of antonyms, polysemy, synchronic polysemy, diachronic polysemy, homonyms, homonyms proper, homonymic clash, homophony, homography, hyponyms, hyperonyms, parts and wholes, series, hierarchies, false friends, transfer of meaning, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche Questions: Render a few examples of full and simple synonymy. Explain the importance of mutual relation between registers and synonymy. What can be said about dialects and synonyms? Do synonyms follow the same syntactic patterns? Slang is typical for its synonymic richness. Render some examples. What are antonyms and how are they classified? Antonyms often co-occur in one sentence. Render some examples. What is polysemy and how can we classify it? What are homonyms and homophones? Render three and four element groups of homophones. Where is the homonymic clash common? Render five homographs and explain their meaning. What are hyperonyms and hyponyms (render examples). Render examples of parts and wholes. Render examples of series. Render examples of hierarchies. What are the false friends within the language and between different languages? What types of similarity are applied in the transfer of meaning? What is the metaphor? Render examples (shape, colour, place, scope, function). Render examples which are only in Czech (transfer of animal qualities to people and transfer of animals to plants). Render examples of metonyms with the classification. 145 11. Slang Slang is a very informal kind of vocabulary, used mostly by people who know each other well. Slang expressions are not usually written and they are considered out of place in formal kinds of communication. Psychologists claim that swearing is a form of mental relief and helps avoid stress. See you down at the boozer. (pub) He’s a real prat. (fool) OK, let’s shove off. (go) Wait a minute – my shoelace has bust. (broken) Slang expressions relate frequently to things that people feel strongly about (family relationship, friendship, drink, drugs, social conflicts, physical and mental illness, death). She’s got tits like ripe melons. (breasts) God, we got smashed last night. (drunk) Prods out! (Protestants) Can you get that sitrep to the MD by five? (situational report) I’ve got some sort of bug. (illness) He’s lost his marbles. (gone mad) When I kick the bucket, I want you all to have a big party. (die) Shut your gob! (mouth) Kill the wongs! (coloured people) Many slang expressions are used by members of particular social and professional groups, and nearly all slang is used between people who know each other well or share the same social background. It is not a convenient communicative strategy for foreigners to try deliberately to use slang. The target group might get the impression that you are claiming membership of a group that you do not belong to. There is also the danger that the slang may be out of date – when slang gets into books, it is often already dead. It is best to wait until one has really become accepted as part of a community; one will then start using their slang naturally and correctly along with the rest of their language. Jargon • the technical language of a special field 146 • the obscure use of specialized language Here are a few examples of a professional jargon: Employer: career change opportunity, decruitment, degrowing, dehiring, destaffing, downsizing, negotiated departure, outplacement, personnel surplus reduction, reducing headcount, redundancy elimination, rightsizing, vocational relocation, voluntary termination, work force adjustment, work force imbalance correction (getting the sack) Wine connoisseur: Well, it smells interestingly of flowers and interestingly of bath salts, but has tropical fruit on the palate, with rough sauvignon blanc edges absent. Academic: In respect to essential departmental goals a primary interrelationship between systems and/or subsystems constraints presents a valuable challenge showing the necessity for any normative concept of the holistic continuum. Military: You always write it’s bombing, bombing, bombing. It’s not bombing! It’s air-support! Classy talk: E.g. works of J.P. Wodehouse or Oscar Wilde Tough guy talk: She’s grifter, shamus. I’m a grifter. We’re all grifters. So we sell each other out for a nickel. R. Chandler (grifter – small-time criminal; shamus – private detective) 147 Argot It is a special language of a secretive social group. Our pockets were full of deng, so there was no real need from the point of view of crasting any more pretty polly to tolchock some old veck in an alley [… ] A. Burgess Key words: slang, jargon, argot Questions: Should foreigners be familiar with the slang language? In what way? 148 12. Taboo words and swear words Languages generally have words which are considered dangerous, and which are only used in certain situations or by certain people. These taboo words are constrained by the culture, religion, generation, social group, etc. Taboo words are an indispensable part of primary (family and school) education and as such constitute emotional barriers. Taboo words In order not to break social rules, people refer to a taboo topic indirectly using a euphemism: casket – coffin pass away – die push up the daisies – be dead under the weather – ill spend a penny – urinate adult video – pornography in the family way – pregnant expectorate – spit tired and emotional – drunk carnal relations – sexual relations The stronger the taboo, the larger the variety of substitute forms. The strongest taboo word cunt has accumulated around 700 forms (G. Hughes, 1991). Classification English has four main groups of taboo words and expressions (the number of asterisks represents the intensity): Religion damn* condemn to hell (usually as swearword) blast* (BrE) strike with divine punishment (usually as swearword) hell*, God* Jesus*, Christ* Parts of the body 149 arse*** bottom, buttocks, anus (AmE ass**) arsehole*** anus (AmE asshole**) balls***, bollocks*** testicles cock***, dick***, prick*** penis tits*** breasts Sexual activity fuck*** have sex with wank*** masturbate bugger*** have anal sex with persons or animals; person who does so sod** homosexual (sodomite) bitch** immoral woman whore** prostitute bastard** child of unmarried parents Elimination of bodily wastes piss*** urine, urinate shit***, crap** excrement, defecate fart** let digestive gas out Swearwords The taboo words are used in swearing. The meaning of a swearword is always different from its literal (taboo) meaning. 150 Difference between taboo and swearwords Taboo word: What are you doing fucking in my bed? (literal meaning – why are you making love) Swear word: What are you fucking doing in my bed? (swearword – why the hell are you in my bed) Functions of swear words Exclamation of annoyance: Damn (it)! Blast (it)! God damn it! God damn! Hell! (My) God! Jesus! Christ! Jesus Christ! Bugger (it)! Sod (it)! Shit! Fuck (it)! Damn (it)! Can’t you hurry up? Fuck (it)! I’ve lost the address! Exclamation of surprise: Bugger me! There’s Mrs Smith. I thought she was on holiday. Well, I’m damned! What are you doing here? My God! Look at that! Surprised question: Who/What/Why the hell… Who/What/Why the fuck … Insult (nouns): You bastard. Stupid old fart! He’s a real prick! Stupid fucker! Lucky sod! He’s such a bitch! That guy’s a real asshole! You son of a bitch! 151 Insulting request to go away: Fuck off! Bugger off! (BrE) Screw! Piss off! Sod off! (BrE) Violent refusal: (I’ll be) damned/fucked if I will! Get stuffed! (BrE) I’ll be buggered if I will! Balls! Stuff it (up your arse)! (BrE) Balls to …! (BrE) Stuff it up your ass! (AmE) Bollocks! (BrE) Examples: “Sergeant wants you to clean out the lavatories. “ “Fucked if I will!“ “Management are offering another 8 quid a week.“ “They can stuff it.“ “Give me a kiss.“ “Get stuffed!“ “You’re afraid to fight.“ “Balls!“ Balls to the lot of you! I’m going home. Intensifiers (adjectives/adverbs): damn(ed) goddam (AmE) blasted (BrE) fucking bloody (BrE) sodding (BrE) bleeding (BrE) I damn well hope you never come back. I’m not fucking well paying this time. It’s bloody well raining again. 152 Examples of miscellaneous usage Somebody fucked up the TV. You’ve buggered my watch. (spoil) “Want another game of tennis?“ “No, I’m fucked.“ (exhausted) Don’t buy a car from that garage – they’ll screw you. (cheat) That bloody secretary cocked up/balled up/screwed up/fucked up my travel arrangements. (made mistakes in) “What’s his new book like?“ “A load of balls.“ Don’t talk crap! Bullshit! (nonsense) “Janie´ s getting married.“ “No, shit.“ (lies US) There’s fuck all in the fridge. We’ll have to eat out. (similarly bugger/damn/sod) (nothing GB) Steve was pissed again last night. (drunk GB) I’m getting pissed off with London. (fed up GB) I’m pissed at him because of what he’s been saying about me. (annoyed US) Model example SHIT /S/ (after Crystal) Positive (wonder, sympathy, embarrassment, etc.): Aw S!, a cute little S, S a brick!, Shee-y-it, She-it, She-I-I-I-t!, Hot S!, S-hot, Tough S! ref. Hard cheese, tough cheddar, stiff biscuits, etc. Positive (drugs- cannabis): want some S?, S was scarce, good S for sale, clean white S Negative (personal abuse): He a regular/little/first-class S, They are Ss, on my S-list, S-arse/-bag/-breeches/-face/-hawk/-head/-heel/-hole/house/-poke, S-kicker AmE rustic) 153 Negative (dirty activities): S-work (menial housework), S-kickers (AmE heavy work-boots) Negation: not give a S, ain’t worth a S, ain’t got S, don’t tell them S Trouble: be in the S, be through a lot of S, be in the S street, S out of luck, when the S flies, when the S hits the fan, up S creek (without a paddle) Fear: S scared, S oneself, scared S-less, beat the S out of someone, give one Ss Deception/tease: Are you S-ting me?, No S! Nastiness: that´s S-ty thing to say, in a S-ty mood, it’s S-ting down outside Rubbish: load a S, all the S, don’t give me any S, full of S, bull-S, chicken-S Euphemistic: Shivers, Sugar, Shoot, Shute, Shucks, Sherbert Key words: taboo words, swear words, insult nouns, intensifiers, exclamations Questions: What are taboo words and in which areas of the lexicon is their origin? Render some taboo words (religion, parts of the body, sexual activity, elimination of bodily wastes). How do foreigners perceive taboo words in English? What is the difference between a swear and a taboo word? Render examples of swear words in: exclamation of surprise, surprised question, insults, intensifiers. Are there any cross-cultural differences between English and Czech in terms of swear words and taboo words. What would you recommend translators? 154 13. Archaisms Definition It is an old word or phrase no longer in general spoken or written use. Typology: • lexical archaisms: behold, ere, eke, hither, quoth, smite, unto, wight, wot, yonder, varlet, forsooth • grammatical archaisms: ye, dost, thou, hath, shalt, durst • semantic: curious – careful, skilful; nice – foolish; coy – quiet Usage: • historical poems, novels, plays: King Arthur, Robin Hood, Ivanhoe • children’s historical stories, fairy tales, nursery rhymes • religious and legal language • trade names and commercial advertising • place names Questions: What is the archaism? How can we classify them? In what language are they used? Render examples. 155 14. Diminutives A diminutive is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment. (Shorter Oxford Dictionary). Only derivative forms are listed, not text dependent diminutives (My two year old daughter´s gloves). Typology Native English diminutives: -k/-ock/-uck: bollock, bullock, buttock, fetlock, hillock, mattock -n/-en/-on (feminine): chicken, kitten, maiden -le (defrequentative -l): puddle, sparkle -ish (disparative): largish, reddish, smallish, tallish -s (degenitive): Becks, Betts, Wills -sie/-sies/-sy (babytalk assimilative): bitsy, footsie, halfsies, onesies, popsy, teensy-weensy, tootsie, twosies, Betsy, Patsy, Robsy -o (American devocative): bucko, daddio, garbo, kiddo, smoko, wacko, Jacko, Ricko -er/-ers/-ster (agentive, intensive, hypocoristic): bonkers, preggers, starkers, Becker[s], Lizzers, Hankster, Patster -a (Geordie assimilative -er): Gazza, Macca -z (Geordie degenitive -s): Bez, Chaz, Gaz Loanwords and native English words using foreign-language diminutives: -ling (Old Norse defrequentative-patrinominative): darling, duckling, fingerling, gosling, underling -erel/-rel (Francish-Latin comparative): cockerel, coistrel, doggerel, dotterel, mackerel, minstrel, scoundrel, tumbrel/tumbril, whimbrel, wastrel -el/-il/-ille/-l/-le (Norman-Francish): broil, griddle, grille, jail, mail, pill, quail, rail, roll, squirrel, toil, trail -et/-ette/-etti/-etto/-it/-ita/-ito/-itta (Italian-Latin defrequentative): amaretto, burrito, cigarette, clarinet, courgette, diskette, fajita, falsetto, faucet, gambit, kitchenette, marionette, minuet, oubliette, 156 palette, pallet, parquet, puppet, rabbit, señorita, spaghetti, suffragette, towelette, wallet -ot/-otte : harlot, Charlotte, Diderot, Lancelot, Margot, Peugeot, Pierrot -let/-lette (F rench): aglet, applet, booklet, eyelet, gauntlet, goblet, hamlet, leaflet, toillet, omelette, piglet, roulette, tablet -ey/-ie/-y (Scottish-Dutch): cookie, daddy, dearie, doggy, girlie, kitty, laddie, mammy, mommy, mummy, sissy, whitey, Debbie, Frankie, Frenchy, Johnny, Marty, Morty, Nancy -kin (Dutch): bodkin, cannikin, catkin, lambkin, manikin, napkin, pannikin, ramekin, welkin -kins (hypocoristic): Laurakins, Sallykins -leus/-ola/-ole/-oli/-ola/-olo/-olus/-ula/-ule/-uleus/-ulum (FrancishSpanish-Italian-Latin): alveolus, areola, areole, article, cannoli, casserole, cerulean, cuniculus, curriculum, Equuleus, ferrule, formula, granule, homunculus, insula, majuscule, minuscule, nodule, nucleus, nucleolus, particle, pergola, pendulum, pianola, piccolo, ravioli, raviolo, reticule, spatula, tarantula, vacuole -eau/-el/-ella/-elle/-ello/-il/-illa/-ille/-illo/-le (F-S-I-L E -kin): armadillo, bordello, bureau, castle (OE castel), codicil, espadrille, flotilla, mantle, Monticello, morsel, organelle, pastel, pencil, pestle, quadrille, quarrel, rowel, scintilla, vanilla, violoncello -ina/-ine/-ini/-ino (F-S-I E -like or –ling): bambino, doctrine, domino, figurine, linguine, maraschino, marina, neutrino, palomino, tambourine, zucchini mini- (commercial compound): minibar, miniblind, miniboss, minibus, minicar, minicassette, minicomputer, minigame, minigun, minimall, minimarket, minimart, mini-nuke, minischool, miniseries, miniskirt (1965), minitower, minivan, mini-LP, mini-me, MiniDisc 157 Scots In Lowland Scots diminutives are frequently used. Common diminutive suffixes are -ie, -ock, -ockie , –ag. -ie . Others are -le or -er for frequentative or diminutive emphasis. Less frequent diminutives are kin (often after the diminutive -ie) and -lin. Examples: -ie: burnie (small burn), feardie or feartie (frightened person, coward), gamie (gamekeeper), kiltie (kilted soldier), mannie (man), Nessie (Loch Ness Monster), postie (postman), wifie (woman) -ock: bittock (wee bit, little bit), playock (toy), sourock (sorrel), -ag: Cheordag (Geordie), bairnag (small child) -ockie: hooseockie (little house), wifockie (little woman) -le: crummle (a bread-crumb), snirtle (snigger, snort) -er: plowter (dabble), stoiter (stumble) -kin: cuitikins (spatterdashes), flindrikin (light, flimsy), joskin (yokel) -lin: hauflin (half-grown boy), gorblin (unfledged bird) 158 Bibliography and further reading Adams, Valerie: Introduction to Modem English Word-Formatíon, London 1973. Allwood, Jens: , "Meaning Potentials and Context: Some Consequences for the Analysis of Variation in Meaning." Cognitive Approaches to Lexical Semantics, ed. by Hubert Cuyckens, René Dirven, and John R. Taylor. Walter de Gruyter, 2003. Barbor, Charles: Linguistic Change in Present-Day English. Edinburgh 1964 Bauer, Laurie: English Word Formation. Cambridge 1983 BIBER, D., S. JOHANSSON, G. LEECH, S. CONRAD, AND E. FINEGAN (1999): Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman Bliss, A.: Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English. London Bolinger, D., Sears, D.A.: Aspects of Language, Harcourt Brace jovanovich, 1981. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, ed. D. Crystal. London 1987. Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge 1992. Crystal D.: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2003. Čermák F., Blatná R.: Manuál lexikografie, Jinočany 1995. Čermák F. Frazeologie a idiomatika česká a obecná, Praha 2007. Čermák F.: Lexikon a sémantika, Praha 2010. Davies, C. Stella & Leviti, John: What’s in a Name?, London 1970. Dušková, Libuše: Mluvnice současné angličtiny. Praha 1988. 159 Filipec, Josef - Čermák, František: Česká lexikologie. Praha 1985. Hladký, Josef: A Functional Onomatology of English. Brno 1995. Hladký, Josef : The Czech and the English Names of Mushrooms. Brno 1996. Hladký, Josef : Zrádná slova v angličtině. Praha 1990. Hughes, Arthur - Peter Trudgill: English Accents and Dialects. London 1979. Klégr, Aleš - Norah Hronková: Znáte anglická přídavná jména? Praha 1994. Knittlová, Dagmar: Kapitoly z lexikologie angličtiny. Olomouc 1988. Kreidler. Ch. W.: Introducing English Semantics. Routledge, 1998. Kvetko Pavol: Anglicko-slovenský frazeoloogický slovník, Bratislava 1991. Kvetko Pavol: Slovensko-anglický frazeologický slovník, IRIS 1996. Kvetko Pavol: Essential of Modern English Lexicology, Bratislava 2001. McArthur, Tom: Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. London 1981. McCarthy, Michael: Vocabulary, Oxford University Press 1990. Newmark, Peter: Approaches to translation, Oxford, 1989. Roget’s International Thesaurus. Thomas Y. Crowwell Company, 1962. Peprník, Jaroslav: English Lexicology, UP Olomouc, Olomouc 2001. Ouirk, R. - Greenbaum, Sidney - Leech, Geoffrey - Svartvik, Jan: A Comprehensive 160 Grammar of the English Language, London, 1985. | Smirnickij, A. I.: Leksikologija anglijskogo jazyka, Moskva, 1956. Sparling, Don: English or Czenglish?, Praha 1989. Swan, M.: Practical English Usage. Oxford University,Press, 2005. Vařecha, Vladimír: Exercises in English Lexicology, Praha, 1990. Further reading Murray Bromberg, Melvin Gordon: 1100 Words You Need to Know, Barron's Educational Series, 1993. K.M. Elizabeth Murray, R.W. Burchfield: Caught in the Web of Words, Yale University Press, 1995. Yorick Wilks, et al.: Electric Words, Dictionaries, Computers, and Meanings), MIT Press, 1996. Christiane Fellbaum (Editor): Wordnet: An Electronic Lexical Database (Language, Speech and Communication), MIT Press, 1998. Judith S. Neaman, Carole G. Silver The Wordsworth Dictionary of Euphemism, Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1995. Walter Nash, David E. Stacey: Creating Texts, Addison Wesley Longman Higher Education, 1997. Allen Reddick: The Making of Johnson's Dictionary 1746-1773 (Cambridge Studies in Publishing and Printing History), Samuel Johnson Dictionary of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 1996. David Singleton: Exploring the Second Language Mental Lexicon, Cambridge University Press, 1999. 161 William Brohaugh: English Through the Ages, Writer's Digest Books, 1997. Vincent B. Ooi: Computer Corpus Lexicography, Edinburgh University Press, 1998. Herbert C. Morton: The Story of "Webster's Third", Cambridge University Press, 1994. Bran Boguraev (Editor), et al Corpus Processing for Lexical Acquisition (Language, Speech, and Communication Series), MIT Press, 1995. Henning Bergenholtz(Editor), Sven Tarp (Editor), Manual of Specialised Lexicography, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1995. Jean-Pierre Koenig: Lexical Relations, Center for the Study of Linguistics and Information, 1999. Herbert C. Morton: The Story of "Webster's Third", Cambridge University Press, 1995. Eve V. Clark: The Lexicon in Acquisition (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, No 65), Cambridge University Press, 1995. John Algeo (Editor): Fifty Years Among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941-1991, Cambridge University Press, 1993. Rosamund Moon: Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English, Clarendon Press, 1998. Martin Gellerstam (Editor Studies in Computer-aided Lexicology ), Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1988. De Witt T. Starnes, Gertrude E. Noyes: The English Dictionary from Cawdrey to Johnson 1604-1755, John Benjamins Publishing, 1990. Reinhard Hartmann (Editor),The History of Lexicography, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1986. 162 Julie Coleman (Editor), Christian J. Kay (Editor): Lexicology, Semantics and Lexicography, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000. Ellen Contini-Morava(Editor), Yishai Tobin (Editor): Between Grammar and Lexicon, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1999. Morton Benson (Editor), et al: Lexicographic Description of English, John Benjamins Publishing, 1986. Jerzy Tomaszyck (Editor), Barbara Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (Editor): Meaning and Lexicography, John Benjamins Publishing, 1990. P. Faber, R.M. Uson: Constructing a Lexicon of English Verbs, Walter de Gruyter, 1999. Franz Josef Haussmann (Editor): An International Encyclopedia of Lexicography, Walter de Gruyter, 1991. C.K. Ogden, W.Terence Gordon: From Bentham to Basic English (Introduction), Thoemmes, 1999. Robert, P. Malouf: Mixed Categories in the Hierarchical Lexicon, 1999. 163