Name of the project Development of Education at the Silesian University in Opava
Registration no. of the project CZ.02.2.69/0.0./0.0/16_015/0002400
Intercultural communication
Distance learning study materials
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková
Karviná 2019
Subject: Culture,
Business,
Marketing and advertising,
Languages.
Key words: Intercultural communication, interdisciplinary field, verbal and non-verbal
interaction, communication competence, culture, knowledge, essentials
skills, communication techniques, business communication, CV.
Annotation: The study text Intercultural Communication is for students of regular and
distance study, mainly for the students with an interest in dealing with
situations that are connected with intercultural surroundings and leading
business on globalized market. It focuses on doing business in intercultural
environment with the emphasis on specifics of chosen cultures. It
enlarges the knowledge of cultural awareness needed for a business
career. The text emphasizes culture specifics influencing successful
communication with clients and professional terminology related to
customer care, services, and spoken and written communication in English.
It is divided into 12 chapters dealing with topics of culture dimensions,
division of cultures, verbal and non-verbal communication,
business communication, etiquette, meetings and negotiations, and dealing
with written communication as well.
Author: Ing. Patrik Kajzar, PhD.
Mgr. Martina Chylková
Recenzenti: doc. RNDr. Ing. Roman Šperka, Ph.D
Mgr. Jana Hejtmánková, Ph.D.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
3
Table of contents
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................5
QUICK OVERVIEW OF STUDY TEXT...........................................................................6
1 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS ...........................7
1.1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication .......................................................7
1.2 Intercultural communication and its specifics.....................................................10
1.3 Language and culture ..........................................................................................13
1.4 Culture values and their impact on communication in marketing ......................15
2 CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING........19
2.1 Introduction to culture dimensions......................................................................19
2.2 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and practical application in marketing .............21
2.3 Case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions..........................29
3 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE....................................................36
3.1 Culture, cultural and cross-cultural awareness....................................................36
3.2 National identity..................................................................................................42
4 DIVISION OF CULTURES......................................................................................48
4.1 Division of cultures, cultural intelligence ...........................................................48
4.2 Division of cultures according to Hofstede, Trompenaars and Lewis ................52
5 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION...........................................62
5.1 Verbal communication........................................................................................62
5.2 Non-Verbal Communication...............................................................................66
6 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION...........................................................................74
6.1 Introduction to effective communication............................................................74
6.2 Communication techniques and barriers of communication...............................77
7 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION.............................................................................84
7.1 Business communication.....................................................................................84
7.2 Presentation skills................................................................................................86
7.3 Telephone skills...................................................................................................89
7.4 Specifics of chosen cultures................................................................................93
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
4
8 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE ...................................................................................96
8.1 Business etiquette................................................................................................96
8.2 Greetings and small talk......................................................................................97
8.3 Specifics of chosen cultures..............................................................................101
9 MEETINGS .............................................................................................................104
9.1 Characteristics of a successful meeting.............................................................104
9.2 Agenda ..............................................................................................................106
9.3 Chairing and leading discussion........................................................................107
9.4 Specifics of chosen cultures..............................................................................111
10 NEGOTIATIONS....................................................................................................114
10.1 Types of negotiations.....................................................................................114
10.2 Stages of negotiations....................................................................................115
10.3 Specifics of chosen cultures ..........................................................................120
11 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS ..123
11.1 Applying for a job..........................................................................................123
11.2 Writing emails ...............................................................................................127
11.3 Reports...........................................................................................................129
11.4 Complaints.....................................................................................................130
12 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUESTIONNAIRE.......134
12.1 Advertising ....................................................................................................135
12.2 Job advertising...............................................................................................137
12.3 Questionnaire.................................................................................................138
THE LIST OF LITERATURE.........................................................................................141
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY TEXT ............................................................................148
OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE ICONS .........................................................................149
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
5
INTRODUCTION
The submitted study text Intercultural Communication is designed for students of regular
and distance study for all programmes, mainly for the students with an interest in
dealing with situations that are connected with intercultural surroundings and leading
business on globalized market.
The text emphasizes culture specifics influencing successful communication with clients
and professional terminology related to customer care, services, and spoken and written
communication in English.
To be able to pass the course successfully, students must prove that their command of
English corresponds to the level B1/B2 in all language dimensions.
Students are recommended first to find out information about icons, abbreviations and
symbols used in the study text. A list of them is available at the end of the text.
Students are provided with so-called distance elements – Questions, Answers, To remember,
Check questions, etc. Checking questions are aimed at practising useful phrases and
vocabulary, For interested persons encourages further searching for information to be
discussed in seminars. There is a Final test available at the end of the chapter to revize
some important facts explained in the chapter.
Students are helped with information, navigation and orientation symbols when a quick
insight into a topic is needed. It is also necessary to pay attention to comments and references
related to publications, textbooks, etc. where specific grammar phenomena are presented
in more details.
Authors.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
6
QUICK OVERVIEW OF STUDY TEXT
The study text Intercultural communication is divided into 12 chapters providing the
students with an introduction of doing business internationally. The first six chapters are
theoretical, which is needed for understanding the second part of the study text with the
emphasis on practical approach to each topic.
Chapter 1 introduces intercultural communication, its specifics, importance of a language
and culture, culture values and their impact on intercultural communication.
Chapter 2 explains culture dimensions with an emphasis on Hostede´s cultural dimensions
and their influence on communication in business.
Chapter 3 deals with a business organization and its culture. The chapter also focuses
on the issue of types of culture and national identity.
Chapter 4 studies the division of cultures and cultural intelligence from different points
of view.
Chapter 5 briefly tackles the verbal and non-verbal communication and its importance
for business communication.
Chapter 6 concentrates on the features of effective intercultural communication.
Chapter 7 is about successful business communication, its types, concentrates on presentation
skills to be able to provide listeners with adequete information, and practices telephone
skills.
Chapter 8 teaches business etiquette including greetings, small talk, and others, providing
students with some usefull phrases.
Chapters 9 and 10 concern with holding meetings, how to chair a meeting, what to do
to negotiate with positive outcomes.
Chapters 11 and 12 are devoted to written communication in business, especially to
writing CVs, cover letters, emails, reports, handling complaints, advertising, etc.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
7
1 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECI-
FICS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the scope of intercultural communication and the main
contributions of the various fields, specifics of intercultural communication. The chapter
also focuses on the issue of language and culture. In the chapter, the students will be presented
with the cultural values and their impact on communication in marketing.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To explain intercultural communication,
 To describe specifics of the intercultural communication,
 To interpret the terms language and culture,
 To specify culture values and their impact on communication in marketing.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Communication competence, culture, cultural values, intercultural communication, interdisciplinary
field, language, verbal and non-verbal interaction.
1.1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication
Communication is a social process, so we use the term social communication; it involves
mutual communication (in the form of dialogue, in some disciplines the concept of information
flow is used). Basic requirements for communication are clarity, brevity, accuracy,
completeness and courtesy. People communicate with each other for any purpose. Such a
purpose may be, for example, the exchange of information, influencing people's behaviour
or influencing interpersonal relationships between individuals and the individual.
Communi-
cation
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
8
Communication is distinguished verbally and verbally in the simplest way. Our vocabulary
has as a primary function the exchange of factual information. Its secondary role is to
mediate manifestations of our feelings.
DEFINITION OF TERM COMMUNICATION
According to Niklesová (2006), the origin and use of the term "communication" is based
on the Latin word comunicare and meant to connect and to communicate in the transferred
meaning. The most important communication resolutions are:
 Oral and written,
 One-way and two-way,
 Monologic and dialogical,
 Face-to-face communication and communication without the time and space connection
of partners,
 Communication,
 Private and public,
 Personal and official, business,
 Symmetrical and complementary, etc..
The ability to understand and communicate in other languages is one of the basic skills
that EU citizens need if they are to participate fully in European society. The act of learning
and speaking other languages encourages the learner to open himself or herself up to other
people and to begin to understand other cultures and outlooks as well as essential skills in
a world menaced by racism and xenophobia (Heinz, 2014).
TO REMEMBER
The significance of 7, 38 and 55. They mean that out of 100% (which represents a person’s
entire interpretation of what another person has said): 7% refers to the weight carried
by the actual words being spoken. 38% represents the tone with which the words are expressed.
55% represents the body language of the speaker.
Intercultural communication is a scientific discipline that studies the relationships
between language and culture, the way in which verbal behaviour of members of different
cultures is involved, and thus the way of perception and understanding of the world among
different ethnic groups. This is a task in the current phase of world globalization and especially
in the presently connected multicultural Europe which is very topical (Jaklová, 2007).
Ability to
un-
derstand
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
9
Defining the concept of intercultural communication is not easy. In the world literature,
there is a number of definitions of this concept, which vary from intercultural communication
disciplines to cultures in which this field is cultivated. The subject of study in this field
is thus the communication forms that people, members of different cultural groups, use in
interpersonal contact.
In the professional literature, the term "intercultural communication" is the first time in
the publication of the American anthropologist ET Halla entitled "The Silent Language",
published in 1959. In the current scientific terminology, the term "intercultural communication",
"Cross-cultural communication" or "interethnic communication") in different languages
are different equivalences. In many non-Slavic languages, a clear term was introduced,
for example in German interculturelle Kommunikation, French (la communication
interculturelle), Italian communication ("comunicazione interculturale"), Spanish (la
communicación intercultura), Swedish ("kültürlerarasi iletişim"), etc. Similarly, in some
Slavic languages, for example the Poles use the term "communicacja międzykulturowa",
the "Intercultural Communication Interpretation", the Slovene "medculturne komunikcije ,
also in Ukrainian is spoken and written about "mіжкультурної комунікації", in Belarusian
about "міжкультурнай камунікацыі", while in some other Slavic languages there are two
equivalents next to each other. In the Czech environment where the term of intercultural
communication is most commonly used, only sporadically contains the phrase "interpersonal
communication“ (Šindelářová and Škodová, 2012).
DEFINITION OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Dang (2016) defined intercultural communication as a symbolic, interpretive, transactional,
contextual process in which people from different cultures create shared meanings.
The objective of exploring intercultural communication in a broad sense is, besides interpersonal
interaction, also mediated intercultural communication in all its forms. This
type of communication is currently playing an increasingly important role in every person's
life. This includes television, radio, film, the Internet and other forms such as advertising
(see intercultural adaptations of advertising slogans) or various media genres such as talk
shows or reality shows that are increasingly being exported, globalized and intercultural
adaptations corresponding specific standards and communication forms of different cultu-
res.
According to Heinz (2014) intercultural communication skills are assuming an everlarger
role in global marketing and sales strategies been developing a highly competitive
economy, trading with countries around the globe. A mobile workforce and workers with
Objective
of IC
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
10
language skills in the EU and outside Europe enjoy a wider choice of job or training opportunities
than their monolingual colleagues.
1.2 Intercultural communication and its specifics
At present, interest in the communication behaviour of members of different national
cultures is of interest mainly in the area of international trade, business, and management.
Experts in these areas are aware of the success of international business depending inter
alia on how effective communication is when communicating parties are members of different
cultures who speak and think different languages.
According to Průcha (2010), Gibson (2002) intercultural communication is a term that
designates interaction and communication processes ongoing in the various types of situations
where they are communicating partners linguistically and /or culturally diverse
ethnic, nations, the racial or religious commonwealth. This communication is determined
by the specifics of languages, cultures, mentality.
The importance of intercultural communication is steadily rising due to a sharp worldwide
development of civilization and the increasing globalization tendencies in many human
spheres activities. It is realized every day in a myriad of international business, political,
diplomatic, educational or tourist contacts. Growing the significance of intercultural
communication is the consequence of people from different countries of the world are becoming
more and more contagious, traded and cooperating. (Quintanilla and Wahl, 2011)
According to Nový (1996) learning to communicate effectively with foreign cultures
means going through these three phases:
1. Recognize the differences in cultures. A willingness to understand the differences is
necessary for understanding different cultures.
2. Get knowledge about other cultures. If we are willing to perceive cultural differences,
we will also be able to acquire objective knowledge. The condition of knowledge
is not the sharing of values, but respect for them.
3. Get your own experience with active communication. Experience is more effective
intercultural communication and rests on the previous two points.
Intercultural communication competence means the ability to aware of risks of misunderstanding
through differences in speech, behaviours, and body language. It also means
the willingness to modify the person’s speech and behaviours accordingly to the situation.
According to the Dang (2016) is imporatant:
 Respecting people from other cultures.
 Being non-judgmental towards members of other cultures.
 Taking turns appropriately in intercultural conversations.
 Being empathic towards members of other cultures.
Importance
of IC
Competence
of IC
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
11
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate
communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
Intercultural communication competence requires knowledge, motivation to learn and
ability to adjust accordingly to the situation.
Despite the fact that no guidelines for or definitions of competence will be applicable in
all situations, the National Communication Association (NCA) has identified many aspects
of competence related to communication. The primary focus has been on competencies
related to speaking and listening, and the NCA notes that developing communication competence
in these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic contexts (Anonymous,
2012) the NCA has defined what students should be able to do in terms of speaking
and listening competencies by the time they graduate from college:
 State ideas clearly.
 Communicate ethically.
 Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
 Identify their communication goals.
 Select the most appropriate and effective medium for communicating.
 Demonstrate credibility.
 Identify and manage misunderstandings.
 Manage conflict.
 Be open-minded about another’s point of view.
 Listen attentively.
Figure 1 shows relation between interactional skills, linguistic and non-verbal communication
skills, cross-cultural communication behaviour and competence.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
12
Figure 1: Intercultural communication competence
Source: Dang, 2016.
An important role in communication is the use of feedback needed by both parties. This
may be a monthly report. Some companies prefer personal contact in the form of meetings
and conferences, others use new technical means (email, videoconference). The most
frequent barriers to effective communication are language barriers.
Insufficient knowledge of the spoken language, often English, is the cause of misunderstanding
and noise. In many cases, partners do not have the same level of language
skills, and so there is an asymmetric structure that creates a superior and subordinate position.
If a linguistically superior person tries to simplify speaking, strengthens the asymmetry
in the relationship, which has an aggravating impact on the communication process. In
important negotiations, like signing contracts, etc., the use of an interpreter is recommended
(Quintanilla and Wahl, 2011).
As regards differences in use of space, Western cultures distinguish four distances
between people in interpersonal contact. According to Alessandra (2017) the intimate zone
is within touching distance, from actually touching to about two feet. This is the space
reserved for people who genuinely care about each other. Lovers hold hands and parents
carry their children or put their arms around them protectively. The personal zone is from
two to four feet. It’s used for discussions that are private and not meant to be overheard. In
a busy networking meeting or at a party, people will avoid breaking this barrier if you are
engaged with someone else at this distance. The social zone is four to twelve feet apart.
This is the space used for public and casual social conversations. It allows others to enter
into the group. It can be fascinating to watch people conversing in a group; they resemble
fish in a school as they move in and out to make a comfortable space for new entries. The
public zone is more than twelve feet. Public speakers and important figures use space to
distance themselves from their audience.
Further, the haptic differs, the area of immediate contact with the other person. These
are in particular ways of welcoming and goodbye like kissing, hugging, handshake. You
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
13
also need to be aware of the different meaning of the gesture (Gibson, 2012). A higher
frequency of gesture utilization is typical of southern people than northerners. An important
role in communication is eye contact and mimic. It is for Western cultures eye-to-eye view
of trust and understanding. If the individual does not look into our eyes, he is usually suspected
of dishonesty. On the contrary, in Asia, the indirect view expresses obedience and
dependency. (Croucher, 2017).
1.3 Language and culture
Language is a set of symbols shared by a community to communicate meaning and experience
(Jandt, 2013, 161). Language and culture can be separable since it is possible for
a language to express or create, would say, different realities or cultures. In the psychological
perspective, these two are inseparable since an individual carries all the linguistic and
cultural experience within oneself.
Language, the most commonplace of all human possessions, is possibly the most complex
and the most interesting. Since it is an instrument for humans' communications with
each other, the growth and development of their talents, causing creativity, innovation, and
novelty, exchanging and transferring their experiences, and on the whole, for the formation
of society(s). The concern with language is not new. Many of the assumptions, theories and
goals of modern linguistics find their origin in past centuries (Mahadi and Jafari, 2012).
According to Dang (2016), effective intercultural communication is a mix of both verbal
and non-verbal communication. During an international business negotiation, non-verbal
behaviours can help to get the message across to foreign partners better than verbal behaviours.
However, there is also a risk of misinterpretation and cause of confusion for the
partners. Language is used not just as a tool for the exchange of information, but as a symbolic
system with the power to create and shape symbolic realities, such as values, perceptions,
identities through discourse. The relation of culture and language is the way they
share human values, realities and behaviours of a social group.
The importance of culture lies primarily in the fact that it is a necessary condition of life
in human society. It is primarily about human action, especially artistic, but also about
eating habits, dressing, behaviour and an overall level of education. Culture is also a direct
indicator of the maturity of every nation. That is why culture is needed not only to cultivate
and maintain but also to promote.
Language is culture and culture is language. Language and culture have a complex, homologous
relationship. Language is complexly intertwined with culture (they have evolved
together, influencing one another in the process, ultimately shaping what it means to be
human).
Language
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
14
DEFINITION OF CULTURE
According to Mahadi and Jafari (2012), culture has multifarious meanings. Culture
meant farming. It is used everywhere as a rural culture, urban culture, American culture
and so on.
Culture as an uncountable noun (without a plural form) is a more abstract concept that
rouses different associations.
The Latin word cultura was first of all used in the context of agriculture. In order to
produce a crop, one has to cultivate the ground – just letting plants grow by their nature is
not enough. This idea was then extended metaphorically to the development of an individual
and of human society.
According to the Nau (2018) culture in the broad sense is what humans add to nature in
order to achieve something better. In many European languages, the concept is associated
with civilization, refinement, education, or arts.
Today, in every field, in humanities, every research requires a general view of culture.
It is used in archaeology, linguistics, history, psychology, sociology and etc. It is even said
that man is an animal with culture. That is to say, the factor which differentiates the human
being's behaviour from the behaviour of the animal is culture
Communication is nothing but a form of behaviour. Therefore, we can develop our
communication skills if we properly analyze the factors that affect the behaviour of our
communication partner. For successful analysis, it is necessary to address the so-called internal
factors that help us to anticipate the behaviour of the other party and also help us to
understand this behaviour. Internal factors include values, feelings, opinions, assumptions,
expectations, attitudes, skills, self-esteem, and many others.
The priority of intercultural communication is to ensure that a person from another cultural
environment is not harmed, attacked or misunderstood in the communication process,
whether consciously or unconsciously. Cultural sensitivity helps to overcome the problems
that most people have with the understanding of non-verbal signals from other cultures. If
we consider the behaviour of others to be abnormal, unpredictable and incomprehensible,
we can not build trust and long-term relationships. On the other hand, the ability to understand
and recognize another culture often brings, among other things, financial gain, job
opportunities and prospects for progress (Gibson, 2002).
Each nation has its own specific (folk) culture, which basically maintains its community.
It is a well-known fact that if a nation loses its culture, it will cease to exist.
Culture
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
15
1.4 Culture values and their impact on communication in marke-
ting
Cultural values can be characterized as a complex of tangible and intangible elements
arising from the gradual development of settlements, traditions arising from the character
of the place and the place-bound. It is a permanent value that evolves and complements
new elements whose effect can be enriching, neutral or degrading. The set of cultural values
creates a unique, unrepeatable and irreplaceable image of the territory, the settlement with
which the population is more or less identified. It is the bearer of cultural traditions and a
source of inspiration for present and future generations (Vojtová, 2006).
Cultural values are the core principles and ideals upon which an entire community exists.
This is made up of several parts: customs, which are traditions and rituals; values, which
are beliefs; and culture, which is all of a group's guiding values.
According to Tian and Borges (2011), the globalization of the economic world has made
it important for marketing managers to understand how to do business in different cultures.
The ability of marketers and consumers to communicate cross-culturally is critical for success.
Marketing communication is two-way interactive communication. Marketers deliver
information to the market they gather, collecting, interpreting, and putting this information
to use. Failure to do so may lead to a loss of business. International marketing communication
is communication that crosses national boundaries for business purposes. Communication
among people from the same culture is often difficult enough. Therefore, communication
between people from different cultures from the point of view of language, values,
customers, and ways of thinking, will be far more difficult, with a degree of miscommunication
being almost inevitable
The goal of international marketing communication is to create desirable ideas about the
company, its products and brands so as to stimulate demand, differentiate given product
from the competition, influence existing and potential customers and persuade them about
the suitability of the purchase. The communication strategy may vary depending on the
differences indifferent markets. (Boučková et al., 2003).
Machková (2006) distinguishes three basic concepts of international marketing: export
marketing, global marketing and international marketing management or intercultural marketing.
Intercultural marketing is most showing cultural differences because it works with
more than one culture and measures culture with each other.
According to Usunier (1996) there are also two dimensions that can be traced in the
context of intercultural marketing. The first, which compares national marketing systems
and local customs in different countries, is a cross-cultural approach. It aims to describe the
differences between the specifics of certain countries and between universals and is central
to the preparation and implementation of marketing strategies.
Cultural
values
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
16
DEFINITION OF CROSS-CULTURAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural marketing communication is marketing communication among consumers
or customers whose culture differs from that of the marketer’s own culture in at least
one fundamental aspect of culture such as language, religion, social norms and values, education,
and lifestyle. Cross-cultural marketing communication demands that firms be aware
of and sensitive to cultural differences (Emery and Tian, 2003).
The second dimension defines an intercultural approach that examines interactions
between traders, consumers, and other subjects with different cultural backgrounds. This
approach also examines the interactions between products originating from one culture and
the different consumers of culture, ie the subject of the analysis is also the report values,
norms, and characteristics embedded in advertising messages appear in various cultures to
a greater or lesser degree (Usunier, 1996).
Besides the known risks of ordinary communication, there is an intercultural communication
very prone to mutual misunderstanding. In general, it can be argued that both, all,
intercultural stakeholders communication desires its success and efficiency.
The overall issue of intercultural marketing can be practically expressed as follows: Better
marketing approaches are standardized (globalization) or adapted to local habits, habits
and motives of the consumer (localization)? The first of these two approaches is more economic,
the second more effective (Mooij 2009; Usunier 1996).
Although marketing experts emphasize the importance of cultural factors in developing
strategic decisions, practical marketers still tend to be globalized because they are more
economical and simplify strategic planning and thus brand consistency. The need to cope
with this dilemma is also anticipated by the international market survey, which, according
to Berndt, Alltobeli and Sander (2007), is a prerequisite for successful negotiations on foreign
markets. Marketing Market Research realizes that there are marketing issues related
to at least two geographically limited national markets. The survey then produces a typology
demonstrating different needs within national markets.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples of different types of cross-cultural marketing communication
and describe them.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
17
QUESTIONS
1.) Intercultural communication is:
a) the verbal and non-verbal interaction between people from different cultural ba-
ckgrounds
b) non-verbal communication
c) verbal communication
2.) Learning to communicate effectively with foreign cultures means going through:
a) three phases,
b) four phases,
c) five phases.
3.) Western cultures distinguish four distances between people in interpersonal contact.
To your intimate zone (about 40-50 cm), Asian cultures perceive the space completely
different, and the intimate zone ranges from:
a) 30 to 40cm
b) 60 to 90cm
c) 90 to 120 cm
ANSWERS
1a, 2b, 3b.
OTHER SOURCES
HEINZ, K., 2014. Intercultural Communication. Karviná: SU OPF. ISBN 978-80-7510-
018-4.
CROUCHER, S. M., 2017. Global Perspectives on Intercultural Communication. New
York and London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317506539.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS SPECIFICS
18
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Communication is a social process, so we use the term social communication; it involves
mutual communication. Communication is distinguished verbally and verbally in the simplest
way. The ability to understand and communicate in other languages is one of the basic
skills that EU citizens need if they are to participate fully in European society. Intercultural
communication is a scientific discipline that studies the relationships between language and
culture, the way in which verbal behaviour of members of different cultures is involved,
and thus the way of perception and understanding of the world among different ethnic
groups.
Language is a set of symbols shared by a community to communicate meaning and experience.
Language and culture can be separable since it is possible for a language to express
or create, would say, different realities or cultures. Effective intercultural communication
is a mix of both verbal and non-verbal communication. Culture as an uncountable
noun is a more abstract concept that rouses different associations. The priority of intercultural
communication is to ensure that a person from another cultural environment is not
harmed, attacked or misunderstood in the communication process, whether consciously or
unconsciously. Cultural values can be characterized as a complex of tangible and intangible
elements arising from the gradual development of settlements, traditions arising from the
character of the place and the place-bound.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
19
2 CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN
MARKETING
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the scope of culture dimensions and their application in
marketing. The chapter also focuses on the issue of Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and
introduces students case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To explain cultural dimension,
 To describe specifics of the Hofstede´s cultural dimensions,
 To show case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Culture, culture dimensions, Hofstede´s cultural dimensions, individualism/collectivism,
long-term/short-term orientation, marketing application, masculinity/femininity, personal
preferences, power distance, restraint/indulgence, uncertainty avoidance.
2.1 Introduction to culture dimensions
The content of the national culture determines especially the tendencies in the formation
and selection of organizational structures, the degree of accentuation of individual managerial
functions, the style of management and the way of decision making in the organization,
as well as the ideas of the employees about the role of the manager in the organization.
CHARACTERSTIC OF CULTURE
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing
language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. Cultures around the world
are more interconnected (Dědina and Cejthamr, 2005; Peacock, 1981).
Culture
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
20
The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin
"colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. Managers
should be able to work with people from different countries and cultural backgrounds.
Most people have different behaviour in their own culture.
G. Hofstede called culture collective programming of mind. It means that culture involves
not only its visible part related to literature, music, and art, but rather a shared system
of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour (Heinz, 2014).
According to Lukášová (2010), individual nations share and pass on from generation to
generation certain basic beliefs, values, norms and steady patterns of behaviour that determine
the thinking, feelings and behaviour of their members. If people working in organizations
are members of a particular nation, the question is to what extent and how the cultural
characteristics of nations affect the characteristics of organizations and the behaviour
of managers. Researchers attempting to study the content of national cultures in relation to
management are generally based in their studies on the important findings of social anthropologists:
within each social unit, people must, in order to preserve the existence of this
whole, address the same basic problems. Their content is universal, but the way of solving
it is specified within the community. This is how different cultures differ.
Lukášová (2010) introduced five categories of problems, universal for all peoples:
1. The essence of human (Is human basically good or bad?);
2. Relationship to nature (Does man have to submit to nature, to live with it in harmony,
or to control it?);
3. Relation to time (What is important and what should we focus on - past, present or
future?);
4. The essence of human activity (Should one be oriented to live and experience, to do
something and to accomplish something, or to develop and become something?);
5. The relationship of the individual to other people (Should one be independent of
society and dominate his / her personal goals, or should he primarily focus on goals
and harmony within the group?).
The 6 dimension, which the author called "orientation to the past, present or future",
refers to the relation to time, the seventh dimension of the relationship to the environment
(to nature and surroundings). Trompenaars described this last dimension as "internal orientation
versus external orientation," based on the psychological concept of "locus of con-
trol".
The most used and best-known framework for cultural differences is Geert Hofstede´s
Cultural Dimensions.
Individual
nations
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
21
2.2 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and practical application in
marketing
In the 1970s, the Dutch scientist Geert Hofstede conducted extensive research on people
from over fifty countries around the world who worked in the local branches of a single
large multinational corporation, IBM, representing almost perfectly comparable samples:
they were similar in all respects to nationality. Research has revealed common issues that
have varied from one country to another in the following areas:
1. Social inequality, including the relationship with authority,
2. The relationship between an individual and a group,
3. The concept of masculinity and femininity,
4. Ways of dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity.
GEERT HOFSTEDE AND CULTURE DIMENSION
Although Geert Hofstede (2007) conducted his research in the 1970s, his results have
long been valid since human societies have a remarkable ability to preserve their identity
through successive generations of their members.
He explained six different culture of dimension on which countries can be ranked:
Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Long-term/Short-term Orientation and Restraint/Indulgence, see Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Source: https://www.business-to-you.com/hofstedes-cultural-dimensions
Hofstede
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
22
POWER DISTANCE (PDI)
Hofstede defines the dimension of power as the extent to which the less powerful members
of institutions and organizations in a given country assume and accept the fact that
power is unevenly distributed.
POWER DISTANCE
Hofstede describes the basic differences between cultures with large and small distances
of power. In cultures with a great distance of power, inequalities are considered to be natu-
ral.
People expect and accept large income differentiation and privileges granted to higherranking
groups; visible signs of status contribute to the authority of the eminent individuals
and groups. The boundaries between social strata are firmly established and respected. In
these cultures, the hierarchy is considered a natural organization of society.
People in high power distance are more comfortable with a larger status differential than
low power distance.
On the other hand, in low-distant cultures, the emphasis is on equality. Non-equality is
perceived as unfair and undesirable, social status is not attributed to great importance. The
pay gap is relatively low in these cultures. In cultures with little power distance, the hierarchy
is formed only on the basis of organizational needs, people do not consider it natural.
In countries with a great distance, parents have great authority and respect for parents
and other elderly people throughout their lives. Children do not support independent behaviour.
In countries with a small distance of power, children are treated as if they were more
or less equal to adults. The aim of parenting is to enable children to take care of their own
affairs as soon as possible. The ideal family is considered to be personal independence
(Anonymous, 2019).
According to Markgraf (2019) cultures with a high power, distance have strong hierarchies
and powerful leaders. Decisions are often made by heads of families and top managers
rather than through discussion and teamwork. Your marketing in such countries has to appeal
to the leadership by emphasizing how products create benefits for the whole family or
company, making their leadership more successful. For low power distance countries, you
have to reach a broad range of ordinary people or workers who will discuss the products
and come to a consensus. The benefits you promote have to make their tasks easier.
According to Khanna (2017) in large power distance cultures, everyone has his or her
rightful place in a social hierarchy, and as a result acceptance and giving of authority is
something that comes naturally. To the Japanese, behaviour that recognizes hierarchy is as
PDI
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
23
natural as breathing. It means, “everything in its place.” In Japan, every greeting, every
contact must indicate the kind and degree of social distance between individuals. In cultures
scoring low on the power distance index, the authority can have a negative connotation, as
the focus is on equality in rights and opportunity, and independence is highly valued.
In large power distance cultures, one’s social status must be clear so that others can show
proper respect. Global brands serve that purpose. In continental Europe, some luxury alcoholic
drinks have such social status values in high power distance cultures. Example,
there is a significant correlation between power distance and consumption of Scotch whisky
in continental Europe. In large power distance cultures, people are well-groomed, in particular
when going out to streets as person position in the social hierarchy is defined by the
way they dress and how they present themselves before others (Khanna, 2017).
The rightful-place concept implies that in high power distance cultures being the “number
one” brand is important. A brand that has entered markets early and is viewed as the
number one brand will remain so more easily than it would in low power distance cultures
where challengers are favoured with a “we try harder” approach. In large power distance
cultures, there are strong dependency relationships between parents and children, bosses
and subordinates, professors and students, masters and learners. In small power distance
cultures, children are raised to be independent at a young age (Khanna, 2017).
The high values of the distance of power are most of the Asian countries (such as Malaysia
and the Philippines), Eastern European countries (Slovakia and Russia), Latin American
countries such as Panama and Mexico) and a slightly lower level of European Romance
countries such as France and the French-speaking part of Belgium, African countries. On
the other hand, German-speaking countries such as Germany, Austria and the Germanspeaking
part of Switzerland, Israel, the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and
Sweden), the United States, Great Britain and the white part of its former empire (New
Zealand, Ireland, Australia and Canada) as well as the Netherlands (Anonymous, 2019).
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)
According to the website Business-to-you.com (2019) the high side of this dimension,
called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in
which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.
Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society
in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to
look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension
is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.” The USA
is considered as one of the most individualistic countries in the world.
IDV
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
24
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)
According to Hofstede (1991), individualism is characteristic of those countries where
relations between individuals are free: everyone is expected to take care of themselves and
their immediate family. Collectivism, as an opposite of individualism, is inherent in
communities where people are integrated from birth into strong and cohesive groups, providing
individuals with protection as a counterpart to loyalty.
In collectivist cultures, it is a key virtue to keep up with your own social environment,
both in the family and in other spheres, and people try to avoid confrontations. Conversely,
in individualistic cultures confrontation is considered correct.
In collectivistic cultures appeals focusing on in-group benefits, harmony, and family are
more effective, whereas in individualistic cultures advertising is more effective than appeals
to individual benefits and preferences, personal success, and independence. In collectivistic
cultures, the acceptance of celebrities would be expected to be lower because being
individually distinctive in the context of daily life is not advised (Anonymous, 2019).
In an individualistic culture, advertising must persuade whereas, in collectivist cultures,
the purpose is to build relationships and trust between seller and buyer. The desire of Japanese
advertising is to focus on inducing positive feelings rather than on providing information.
For countries with high individualism, your promotion can target people by emphasizing
how your products will benefit them. Individual freedom, saving time and rewarding
yourself is effective themes. For low individualism markets with strong community ties,
you have to market to the whole community and explain how, if its members buy your
products, the community will see benefits Markgraf (2019).
According to Lukášová (2010) in collectivist cultures, the employer accepts not only
individuals but above all the person who will belong to the group. The employee is expected
to always act in the interest of the group, even if the group's interest is not in line with his
or her personal interests. Affiliation to the group is the source of an individual's identity,
and the relationship between the employer and the employee has strong moral aspects resembles
a family relationship with mutual obligations of protection and loyalty. Management
is mainly in group collectivist cultures, including the way of remuneration. Harmony
of relationships is preferred over tasks. Performance is not openly debated, as it could
mean a loss of harmony and conflict. Feedback on performance can therefore only be provided
indirectly.
MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)
Markets with high masculinity differentiate between the roles of men and women. You
have to evaluate the culture to make sure your marketing targets the correct gender for each
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
25
product as defined by the particular culture. Markets with low masculinity promote sexual
equality and respond negatively to gender-oriented promotion. For these markets, a neutral
approach appealing to both men and women is appropriate Markgraf (2019).
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)
According to Hofstede (1991) the dimension of masculinity versus feminity has been
labelled as such because it is the only dimension in which men and women employed by
IBM consistently scored differently. Men's and women's responses varied in the field of
work goals: Men attached greater importance to earnings and progress, women to good
relationships with superiors and cooperation with others
In masculine societies, social gender roles are clearly distinguished, ie men are expected
to be violent, harsh and focus on material success, while women are expected to be rather
mild, gentle and quality-oriented; in feminine societies, gender roles are overlapping, ie
men and women are expected to be unpretentious, gentle and quality-oriented.
According to website Business-to-you.com (2019), the Masculine side of this dimension
represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards
for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, stands for
a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at
large is more consensus-oriented. In the business context, Masculinity versus Femininity is
sometimes also related to as “tough versus tender” cultures. Japan is considered to be a
very masculine country, whereas Scandinavian countries such as Norway and Sweden are
considered highly feminine.
Countries with masculine culture are trying to create a powerful society, feminine countries
strive for a society of welfare.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE (UAI)
Avoidance of uncertainty is defined by Hofstede (1991) as "the extent to which members
of the culture feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situations. Feelings of arousal arising
in a high degree of avoidance of uncertainty have no particular cause and rational
roots. They are acquired and taught as a cultural heritage of society, empowered through
basic institutions, ie family, school, state.
MAS
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
26
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE (UAI)
According to the website Business-to-you.com (2019), the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension
expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with
uncertainty and ambiguity. In addition, its impact on rulemaking is taken into account. The
fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be
known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting a high
Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of
unorthodox behaviour and ideas. These countries often need many rules to constrain un-
certainty.
In countries with greater avoidance of uncertainty, most employees and managers want
to stay in the organization for a long time. There are many formal laws and informal habits
that define the rights and obligations of employers and employees. This need for laws and
rules is based emotionally. People in these countries have been programmed since childhood
to feel good in a structured environment. In countries with very weak aversion, we
are confused with the horror of formal rules. Rules are only introduced in case of absolute
necessity. In countries with a strong avoidance of uncertainty, laws are formulated with
greater detail than in countries with little avoidance of uncertainty. Citizens are required to
carry personal passes in order to be identified if requested to do so by an official. In countries
with little avoidance of uncertainty, such an obligation does not exist (Anonymous,
2019).
In countries with a high degree of avoidance of uncertainty, people are active, emotional,
restless, busy. Their lives are accompanied by feelings of inner urgency and experiences of
anxiety and stress associated with a high need for predictability and comprehensibility. It
is satisfied primarily through structures, written and unpublished rules, laws, regulations
and regulations. The need for rules is not a matter of logic, but of emotion. In addition,
rules that are completely out of function can contribute to reducing anxiety and stress (Lukášová,
2010).
High scores for avoiding uncertainty are found in Latin America and Europe in the Romance
countries and the Mediterranean, Japan and South Korea have high scores, with the
German-speaking countries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland having moderate values.
The values from medium to low are found in all Asian countries except Japan and Korea,
similarly in the countries of Africa and the English-speaking and Nordic countries (Anonymous,
2019).
According to Markgraf (2019), some cultures thrive on ambiguity while others try to
avoid it. You have to evaluate your markets to determine the type of culture and customize
your promotion accordingly. Cultures with high ambiguity avoidance prefer to have pro-
UAI
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
27
duct characteristics spelt out clearly with guaranteed advantages and specific features. Cultures
that do not try to avoid ambiguity accept lifestyle promotions, generalizations about
your products, implied benefits and references to positive change.
LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (LTO)
According to the website Business-to-you.com (2019), every society has to maintain
some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future.
Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently. Countries that score low on this
dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing
societal change with suspicion. They are past and present-oriented and value traditions
and social obligations. Countries with cultures that score high on this dimension, on
the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they are future-oriented and encourage
thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. Asian countries
such as China and Japan are known for their long term orientation. Morocco is a short term
oriented country.
LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (LTO)
Hofstede (1991) says, that short-term orientation in society is reflected in the effort to
achieve results quickly and to seek out pleasures and spending. Long-term culture members
perceive goals over a longer time horizon, characterized by self-discipline, postponement
of satisfaction, continued effort, with results coming later.
According to Anonymous (2019) in countries with a long-term orientation, hard work,
respect for knowledge, honesty, openness to new ideas, responsibility, self-discipline and
self-reliance were identified as core jobs. In countries with a short-term orientation, freedom
of expression, personal freedom, self-reliance, individual rights, hard work, achievements
and self-reflection are considered to be core values. The importance of leisure time
according to the survey negatively correlates with the long-term orientation index. China,
Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, Vietnam and South Korea have the strongest long-term orientation.
All other Asian countries with the exception of the Philippines and Pakistan belong
to countries with a higher index of long-term orientation. European countries occupy a position
on Wednesday. Great Britain and other English-speaking countries (Australia, USA,
New Zealand, Canada) score on short-term orientation. African countries, like the Philippines
and Pakistan, as well as the Czech Republic, are very short-term oriented.
The long term orientation of culture determines whether it is focused on traditions and
the link to the past or on the immediate future. Eastern cultures tend to have high long term
orientation scores while western societies score lower. Your marketing has to take such
orientations into account by fitting promotions into traditional structures for markets with
LTO
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
28
high long term orientation scores and emphasizing short term benefits for low-scoring markets
(Markgraf, 2019).
In relation to advertising, the opposing values of long-term orientation are “save for
tomorrow” versus “buy now, pay later.” Short-term orientation is reflected in the sense of
urgency so frequently encountered in the U.S., advertising. Examples are “Hurry,” “Don’t
wait,” or “Now 50% off, no money down, two full years’ free credit, it’s on now!”. Symbols
of long term orientation are thick trees or precise referral to future generations. Harmony,
with nature and fellow humans, is a popular appeal in Asian advertising. It is part of
an indirect approach that helps to build trust in the company. Much advertising is pure
entertainment, and visuals and objects are used that please the eye, many of which relate to
nature: bamboo trees, flowers, autumn leaves, or other representations of the seasons,
which often have symbolic meaning (Khanna, 2017).
INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IVR)
According to the website Business-to-you.com (2019), the indulgence dimension is a
relatively new dimension to the model. This dimension is defined as the extent to which
people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively
weak control is called Indulgence and relatively strong control is called Restraint.
Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained. Indulgence stands for a
society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to
enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of
needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (LTO)
Indulgence means a tendency to allow relatively free satisfaction of the basic and natural
human needs related to the joy of life and entertainment. Restraint reflects the belief that
such satisfaction is suppressed and subject to strict social standards (Anonymous, 2019).
It turned out that maintaining order in society as a cultural feature was positively correlated
with restraint and negativity with enjoyment. People in more restrained societies more
often regard maintaining order as an important goal that is superior to other goals. An even
stronger correlation was found between indulgence and freedom of speech. Freedom of
speech can be an important goal in benevolent Western societies, but in deceptive societies,
it can be considered unimportant.
Lukášová (2010) wrote, that the short-term orientation of companies is linked to static
values emphasizing the present and the past. The organization does not manage gently with
its resources and therefore does not have enough money to invest. They focus primarily on
immediate results and the fulfilment of their social commitments. Emphasis is placed on
IVR
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
29
"preserving the face" of each individual (ie ensuring and maintaining respect and prestige)
and respecting the traditions.
High indulgence cultures value leisure time, sports and relaxed sexual standards. Low
indulgence cultures have tight social restrictions with fewer individual freedoms. Where a
promotion based on sex appeal may be effective in a high indulgence culture, it will fail in
restrained societies. In low indulgence cultures, you might promote the social benefits of
your products, their usefulness or how they fit into the existing social order (Markgraf,
2019). As leisure tourism and hospitality are primarily hedonic experiences, the dimension
of indulgence and restraint may have significant influences on tourism and hospitality activities,
both from the perspectives of demand, i.e. from the viewpoint of the customer, and
supply, i.e. the service providers, e.g. service personnel (Koc, Gulnil and Akdeniz, 2017).
According to Koc, Gulnil and Akdeniz (2017) tourism and hospitality establishments
attracting tourists from indulgence-oriented cultures may need to provide more and higher
quality information in their marketing communication messages communicated through
commercials, advertisements, brochures and web sites. The fact that people in indulgence
oriented cultures tend to remember positive emotions and experiences and people in restraint
cultures tend to remember negative experiences have implications for post-service evaluations
of customers.
2.3 Case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensi-
ons
According to Urban (2004) with increasing international mobility of managers and employees,
business cooperation is increasingly becoming more common with people from
different national cultures. It can bring many new stimuli and personal enrichment, but it
can also become a source of misunderstanding arising from different expectations, values
and habits or the inability to listen to others. Ability to cooperate with people from different
national cultures, understand the habits of foreign partners, or respect their different approaches,
is rapidly becoming one of the important "soft" working conditions.
TO REMEMBER
Differences in the working style or social behaviour of workers of different nations need
not be conditioned by a different nationality. Significant differences also exist between enterprise
cultures of the same countries or between personalities from different professions.
Problems in multicultural environments arise most often as a result of different expectations
that individual partners may not fully understand. For example, managers from developed
countries generally think that employees should be involved in decision-making or
Coopera-
tion
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
30
get the necessary information themselves. For employees who expect their supervisor to
define their tasks in detail and to pass on all the information they need, a similar management
style can hinder a misunderstanding that results in two-sided dissatisfaction (Urban,
2004).
Světlík (2012) says, that attempts to adapt the product to the needs, wishes and tastes of
local consumers are clear series of products whose production and sales have always been
based on a standardization strategy. For example, Unilever's Dove soap ads running around
the world are the same, with only local actors. Ketchup Heinz sold in the US is a sweeter
flavour than the European ketchup of the same brand. Heinz also offers on the European
ketchup market in more flavour variants (Heinz Hot & Spicy Tomato, Heinz Sriracha Tomato
Ketchup, Heinz Jalapeno Tomato Ketchuú). Failure to respect cultural differences in
marketing can not only be dangerous, but from the point of view of the success of the
company in foreign markets, directly fatal.
According to Yaaoqubi and Reinecke (2019) Hofstede, therefore, suggests that his cultural
dimensions are determined by fundamental values which subconsciously control our
collective behaviour. Therefore, he claims, the factors are universal and highly resistant to
change because people learned them as children. He argues that while adults might be exposed
to opposing values and superficially adapt, they can never erase this ‘software’ of
the mind.
According to the website: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/ you
can select one or several countries on the menu to see the values for the 6 dimensions. You
can compare your personal preferences to the scores of the countries. Authors selected for
comparison the Czech Republic, China and Dominican Republic. The scores of 6 cultural
dimensions you can see on Fig. 3, below.
China Czech Republic Dominican Republic
Fig. 3: Personal preferences to the scores in China, Czech Republic and Dominican
Republic
Source: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/china,czech-republic,the-dominican-repub-
lic/
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
31
POWER DISTANCE
This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal – it
expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance
is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations
within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. The Czech Republic
has a relatively high score on this dimension (57). On the other hand score at 80 China sits
in the higher rankings of PDI – i.e. a society that believes that inequalities amongst people
are acceptable. The subordinate-superior relationship tends to be polarized and there is no
defense against power abuse by superiors. Individuals are influenced by formal authority
and sanctions and are in general optimistic about people’s capacity for leadership and initiative.
People should not have aspirations beyond their rank. With a score of 65, the Dominican
Republic is a hierarchical society. This means that people accept a hierarchical order
in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification.
INDIVIDUALISM
The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a
society maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-image is
defined in terms of “I” or “We”. In individualist societies people are supposed to look after
themselves and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies, people belong to ‘in
groups’ that take care of them in exchange for loyalty.
The Czech Republic, with a score of 58 is an Individualist society. This means there is
a high preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to
take care of themselves and their immediate families only. In Individualist societies offence
causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer/employee relationship is a contract
based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion decisions are supposed to be based on
merit only, management is the management of individuals. On the other hand a score of 20
China is a highly collectivist culture where people act in the interests of the group and not
necessarily of themselves. In-group considerations affect hiring and promotions with closer
in-groups (such as family) are getting preferential treatment. Employee commitment to the
organization (but not necessarily to the people in the organization) is low. The Dominican
Republic, with a low score of 30, is considered a collectivistic society. This is evident in a
close, long-term commitment to the member ‘group’, be that a family, extended family, or
extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount and overrides most
other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone
takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.
MASCULINITY
A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in
the field – a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
32
A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are
caring for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where the quality of life is
the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental
issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you
do (Feminine).
The Czech Republic scores 57 on this dimension and is thus a Masculine society. In
Masculine countries people “live in order to work”, managers are expected to be decisive
and assertive, the emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts are
resolved by fighting them out. At 66 China is a Masculine society – success oriented and
driven. The need to ensure success can be exemplified by the fact that many Chinese will
sacrifice family and leisure priorities to work. Service people (such as hairdressers) will
provide services until very late at night. Leisure time is not so important. Similarly, score
66 indicated in the in the Dominican Republic there is a “Masculine” society too.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with
the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it
happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal
with this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened
by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that
try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance.
The Czech Republic scores 74 on this dimension and thus has a high preference for
avoiding uncertainty. Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid
codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these
cultures, there is an emotional need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work) time is
money, people have an inner urge to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality are
the norms, innovation may be resisted, security is an important element in individual motivation.
At 30 China has a low score on Uncertainty Avoidance. The truth may be relative
though in the immediate social circles there is a concern for Truth with a capital T and rules
(but not necessarily laws) abound. None the less, adherence to laws and rules may be flexible
to suit the actual situation and pragmatism is a fact of life. The Chinese are comfortable
with ambiguity; the Chinese language is full of ambiguous meanings that can be difficult
for Western people to follow. With a low score (45) in this dimension, the Dominican
Republic has a fairly pragmatic culture in terms of uncertainty avoidance. This means that
both generalists and experts are needed. There is a focus on planning, and these plans can
be altered at short notice and improvisations made. Emotions are not shown much in these
societies; people are fairly relaxed and not averse to taking risks.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
33
LONG TERM ORIENTATION
This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own
past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise
these two existential goals differently. Normative societies, which score low on this dimension,
for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing
societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand,
take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as
a way to prepare for the future.
Fig. 3 shows a very low score of 13. This score means that the Dominican Republic,
therefore, definitely has a normative culture. People in such societies have a strong concern
with establishing the absolute Truth; they are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great
respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on
achieving quick results. Czech culture with score of 70, is shown to be pragmatic. In societies
with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on the
situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions,
a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving
results. China scores 87 in this dimension, which means that it is a very pragmatic culture.
In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on
the situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed
conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving
results.
INDULGENCE
One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small
children are socialized. Without socialization, we do not become “human”. This dimension
is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on
the way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively
strong control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or
Restrained.
The low score of 29 means that Czechs are generally not Indulgent. Societies with a low
score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism. Also, in contrast to
Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure time and
control the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the perception
that their actions are Restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is somewhat
wrong. China is a Restrained society as can be seen in its low score of 24 in this
dimension. Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and
pessimism. Also, in contrast to Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much
emphasis on leisure time and control the gratification of their desires. The Dominican Republic
receives an intermediate score of 54 in this dimension.
CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING
34
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples that illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
QUESTIONS
1.) The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the:
a) Latin
b) Spanish
c) Germany
2.) Geert Hofstede conducted his research in the:
a) 1960s
b) 1970s
c) 1980s
3.) Abbreviation IDV in Hofstede´s cultural dimension means:
a) Indulgence versus Restraint
b) Long-term versus short-term orientation
c) Individualism versus collectivism
ANSWERS
1a, 2b, 3c.
OTHER SOURCES
HOFSTEDE, G.and G. J. HOFSTEDE., 2007. Kultury a organizace: software lidské
mysli : spolupráce mezi kulturami a její důležitost pro přežití. Praha: Linde. ISBN 978-80-
86131-70-2.
PEACOCK, J. L., 1981. Durkheim and the Social Anthropology of Culture. Social Forces.
Oxford University Press. 59(4), p. 996-1008. ISSN 1534-7605.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
35
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing
language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music, and arts. Cultures around the world
are more interconnected. G. Hofstede called culture collective programming of mind. It
means that culture involves not only its visible part related to literature, music, and art, but
rather a shared system of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour. In the 1970s, the Dutch
scientist Geert Hofstede conducted extensive research on people from over fifty countries
around the world who worked in the local branches of a single large multinational corporation,
IBM, representing almost perfectly comparable samples.
Hofseted interpreted six different culture of dimension on which countries can be ranked:
Power Distance - Hofstede describes the basic differences between cultures with large
and small distances of power. People in high power distance are more comfortable with a
larger status differential than low power distance. On the other hand, in low-distant
cultures, the emphasis is on equality. Non-equality is perceived as unfair and undesirable,
social status is not attributed to great importanceIndividualism/Collectivism - can be defined
as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected
to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism,
represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can
expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange
for unquestioning loyalty. Masculinity/Femininity- Markets with high masculinity differentiate
between the roles of men and women. You have to evaluate the culture to make
sure your marketing targets the correct gender for each product as defined by the particular
culture., Uncertainty Avoidance - Avoidance of uncertainty is defined by Hofstede the extent
to which members of the culture feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situation,
Long-term/Short-term Orientation.
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
36
3 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the scope of culture and cultural and cross-cultural
awareness. The chapter also focuses on the issue of types of culture and national identity.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To explain various definition of culture,
 To describe specifics selected of cultures,
 To specify national identity.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
African culture, business organization, culture, cultural and cross-cultural awareness,
Eastern culture, high culture, in between culture, Latin culture, low culture, Middle Eastern
culture, national identity, organizational structures, popular culture, subculture, types of
culture,. Western culture.
3.1 Culture, cultural and cross-cultural awareness
Before we come to the brief characteristics of selected cultures of continents and major
geopolitical regions, it is necessary to define the concept of culture, business organization
and organizational culture.
The concept of culture was originally associated with the cultivation of agricultural land
(agriculture). The basis of the concept of culture as a characteristic of human education was
laid by M. T. Cicero in his Tusclian conversations (45 BC).
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
37
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE
Accordting to Slámová (2017) in general, two basic concepts of culture can be distin-
guished:
 The Axiological concept has its roots in antiquity, works of Renaissance humanists
and German enlighteners, German classical philosophy. Culture is considered primarily
as a class of things and phenomena of humanizing and cultivating human.
 The second concept of culture is formed in anthropology, sociology, ethnography,
psychology and many other disciplines. The creator of a modern global scientific
definition is considered to be E.B. Tylor (Primary Culture, 1871), who defined culture
as a complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and
all other abilities that one has acquired as a member of society.
According to other definition, culture is: Everything people have, what they think, what
they do, and what they deal with as members of a particular society. Culture is learned
behaviour that is passed from generation to generation, and it is never an individual it may
seem, but a set of elements. This learned behaviour is shared by almost everyone in the
society for which culture is valid.
According to Průcha (2010, p. 45), the word culture represents a sum of material and
spiritual values created by mankind. Culture on the one hand as the material outcomes of
human activity (where we rank the products of human activity), and on the other, the spiritual
creations of people (for example morality, different customs and art, etc.)
Culture in a narrower sense includes, for example, music, literature, art, or even religion
and philosophy to develop and refine people. In this sense, it is understood, for example, a
"cultural section" in newspapers, a "cultural journal" or "the Ministry of Culture".
A business organization is the legal set-up of your business. Each state and region has
different laws for registering your business organization, so check what's required to set up
your business. To decide which type of business organization suits your business, you will
choose who is liable and for how much, what assets belong to the company and how they
are divided. There are several kinds of business organizations, but they are divided into two
main classes; unlimited liability and limited liability.
Organizational culture includes an organization’s expectations, experiences, philosophy,
as well as the values that guide member behaviour, and is expressed in member selfimage,
inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and future expectations. Culture
is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and written and unwritten rules that have
been developed over time and are considered valid. How members of an organization conduct
business, treat employees, customers, and the wider community are strong aspects of
Culture
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
38
personal culture and market culture. Person culture is a culture in which horizontal structures
are most applicable. Each individual is seen as more valuable than the organization
itself. This can be difficult to sustain, as the organization may suffer due to competing
people and priorities. Organizational culture is not stagnant. Members of an organization
develop a shared belief around “what right looks like” as they interact over time and learn
what yields success and what does not. When those beliefs and assumptions lead to less
than successful results, the culture must evolve for the organization to stay relevant in a
changing environment.
HIGH AND LOW CULTURE
High culture is a culture that is accepted by authoritative institutions as being of the
greatest value, importance, and significance to humanity. This culture, requiring education
and care. On the other hand, we have the "low" or folk culture, the later pop culture, which
one likes to have, stood since the 18th century.
This distinction is currently wiping out, yet culture is understood only as part of a specifically
human activity that is creative and does not serve immediately to defy life.
Popular culture (commonly called pop culture) is a set of ideas, thoughts, insights,
attitudes, memes, impressions, and other phenomena that are considered to be the most
distinct parts of mainstream culture of a particular culture, from the beginning to the middle
20th century mainly western culture, from the end of the 20th century to the present global
culture. A subculture is a small group with specific cultural features that distinguish it
from the majority culture. Although subculture carries different features within lifestyle,
behaviour, values, and standards, it is an integral part of this majority culture. The term
subculture is most often associated with youth. This part of the population tends to be different
from the established and prevalent during adolescence. He expresses his attitude
with visible subcultural elements. For example (tramping, hip hop, hippies, skate, etc.)
According to humanities research center (2019), an interesting phenomenon is the Mediterranean
area. The concept of "in-between culture" can be applied to the area of the
island of Sicily and satellite islands, which in many respects (geographically, historically,
politically ...) is the seam between more cultures and worlds: not only between the traditional
north and south, Europe and Africa, but also between the East - the presence of Arabs,
Greeks and Byzantines - and the West - the Normans, the Anjou, the Swabians, the
Habsburgs.
The content of the national culture determines especially the tendencies in the formation
and selection of organizational structures, the degree of accentuation of individual ma-
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
39
nagerial functions, the style of management and the way of decision making in the organization,
as well as the ideas of the employees about the role of the manager in the organi-
zation.
Individual nations share and pass on from generation to generation certain basic beliefs,
values, norms and steady patterns of behaviour that determine the thinking, feelings, and
behaviour of their members. If people working in organizations are members of a particular
nation or nation, the question is to what extent and how the cultural characteristics of nations
affect the characteristics of organizations and the behaviour of managers. The subject
of research interest in this question since the 1970s, finding a response to it is not easy. In
order to map the cultural differences between countries, it is necessary to identify the relevant
content dimensions of the national culture to create the necessary tools, and then to
find the contents of the cultures of individual countries or regions and their implications for
organizational management.
It is necessary to briefly characterize selected cultures of continents and major geopolitical
regions for successful organization management in individual regions of the world:
Ferguson (2014), Zimmermann (2017)
1. Western culture - refers to the origin of Western European culture, which was
found not only in Europe but outside Europe, especially in the regions where Western
European civilization had its decisive influence. Western culture can be characterized,
on the one hand, by a set of different social norms, as well as by ethical and
aesthetic rules, and on the other by conventions, ie the relationship of religion and
belief, and their relationship to technology and various technologies. We can understand
the Western world in terms of its historical, linguistic, religious and, last
but not least, political and economic. Western culture has its roots in the Classical
Period of the Greco-Roman era and the rise of Christianity in the 14th century. Other
drivers of Western culture include Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic ethnic and
linguistic groups. Today, the influences of Western culture can be seen in almost
every country in the world.
2. Eastern culture generally refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East
Asia (including China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea, and South Korea) and the Indian
subcontinent. Like the West, Eastern culture was heavily influenced by religion
during its early development, but it was also heavily influenced by the growth and
harvesting of rice, according to the book "Pathways to Asian Civilizations: Tracing
the Origins and Spread of Rice and Rice Cultures" by Dorian Q. Fuller. In general,
in Eastern culture there is less of a distinction between secular society and religious
philosophy than there is in the West.
3. Latin Culture - Many of the Spanish-speaking nations are considered part of the
Latin culture, while the geographic region is widespread. Latin America is typically
defined as those parts of the Central America, South America and Mexico where
Spanish or Portuguese are the dominant languages. Originally, the term "Latin America"
was used by French geographers to differentiate between Anglo and Romance
Selected
cultures
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
40
(Latin-based) languages, according to the University of Texas. While Spain and
Portugal are on the European continent, they are considered the key influencers of
what is known as Latin culture, which denotes people using languages derived from
Latin, also known as Romance languages.
4. Middle Eastern culture - is the designation for the eastern Mediterranean region
and, where appropriate, the adjacent areas. The concept emerged from a European
perspective as opposed to the Far East. This area, where the three continents meet,
is the place, where the oldest human civilization originated, and at the same time, it
is the site of the three world monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
The Middle East region is considered one of the cradles of our civilization and
culture. In ancient times, advanced civilizations emerged on the territory of today's
Egypt and Iraq, all of which were followed by all the following civilizations and thus
our current Euro-American civilization.
5. African culture - African culture is diverse and varied, given the diversity of
ethnic groups living in Africa. Contemporary African culture is influenced by both
internal and external influences. Africa has a long tradition in the production of art
objects, dating back to antiquity. Like every other, African culture has built a myriad
of myths, legends and folklore. Human life originated on this continent and began to
migrate to other areas of the world around 60,000 years ago, according to the Natural
History Museum in London. Other researchers, like those from Estonian Biocentre
in Tartu, believe that the first migration may have been much earlier, as early as
120,000 years ago. Researchers come to these conclusions by studying human genomes
from various cultures to trace their DNA to common ancestors. Fossil records
also factor into some of these theories. Africa is home to a number of tribes, ethnic
and social groups. One of the key features of this culture is the large number of ethnic
groups throughout the 54 countries on the continent.
CULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS
Intercultural management explains the behaviour of people in organizations around the
world and shows people how to work in organizations with employees and client populations
from many different cultures. Intercultural management is currently a dynamically developing
"science" area and Geert Hofstede took the first steps in this field.
Intercultural management deals primarily with the management of human resources in
multinational companies. Human factor is the most limiting factor in applying global strategies.
Therefore, a lot of attention should be paid to human resources management in multinationals,
especially intercultural management. The subject of his interest is the issue of
human resources management with respect to the cultural environment of employees and
the creation of an appropriate corporate culture that would suit all individuals working in
the organization. These are, above all, compromises and the process of adaptation.
According to Mateiciuc (2009) a key factor for intercultural management is the understanding
of cultural contexts in organizational conception, processes and management.
Intercultural
ma-
nagement
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
41
The purpose is not to eliminate the differences in intercultural interactions, but on the contrary,
respecting and achieving common goals without regardless of the heterogeneity of
procedures, negotiation or thinking. The maximum effect can be achieved such a synergy
of cultural differences, that in interaction and appropriate division roles become an asset
and a benefit.
To manage a company in an intercultural environment, the manager should have some
specific knowledge and skills. Skill is defined as the ability to demonstrate a sequence of
measures and solutions, which lead to the goal. The goal of intercultural skills of a manager
is the ability to adapt to a culture other than one's own. The necessity of this situation usually
occurs when transferring the manager to a subsidiary or affiliate abroad, or even one a
culture that has distinctive subcultures (Mead and Andrews, 2009).
If the manager does not adequately represent a company in other countries, or the
practice of intercultural management is inadequate in international co-operation, this may
damage the credibility of this manager. At the same time, it also damages the credibility of
a company or institution. This means that managers' behaviour can have far-reaching consequences.
Interculturally competent managers should know the conditions under which
people of different cultures work and live. In order to succeed in this role, they must acquire
certain basic knowledge of cultural anthropology and intercultural psychology, as well as
the skills of intercultural communication and intercultural management.
TERM CROSS-CULTURAL AND CULTURAL AWARENESS
Term cross-cultural (Schriefer, 2019) deals with the comparison of different cultures.
In cross-cultural communication, differences are understood and acknowledged, and can
bring about individual change, but not collective transformations. In cross-cultural societies,
one culture is often considered “the norm” and all other cultures are compared or
contrasted to the dominant culture.
Cultural awareness (Tesfaye, 2016) is making proper responses to behaviours and
norms exhibited by people from outside of one’s own culture. It is foundation of communication
and it involves the ability of standing back from ourselves and becoming aware of
our cultural values, beliefs, and perceptions.
TO REMEMBER
Very important is to understand cultural differences in:
 Eating habits and dress code
 Communications
 Gesture and body language
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
42
 Traffic
 Concept of time
 Family, gender
 Religion, etc.
For example according to Bertolini (2016) concept of cultural awareness is possible divide
in to 4 degrees, Fig. 4, below.
1. The pyramid base is a degree called „My way is the only way“. People either do
not know, or do not care, that there is any other way of doing things.
2. In degree called „I know ther way, but my way is better“, at this level, people are
aware that other people do things differently, or have different beliefs, but they don’t
think that’s appropriate.
3. Another degree called „My way and their way“. At this stage people realize that
cultural differences can lead both to problems and benefits and are willing to use
cultural divrsity to create new solutions and alternatives.
4. Last level is called „Our way“. In this stage people dialogue repeatedly with
others, create new meanings, new rules to meet the needs of a particular situation.
Fig. 4: Degrees of Cultural Awareness
Source Bertolini, 2016
3.2 National identity
The nation is the highest type of ethnic group. From the original ethnic group, then nationalities
and then peoples developed. Most definitions are based on the common features
of connecting people to the community. These characters are primarily culture, tradition,
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
43
common language, mentality, customs and traditions. They are often assigned two more
features - territories and functioning self-governments.
NATION AND ITS DIMENSIONS
Lněnička (2001) writes that the nation has 5 dimensions: psychological, cultural, territorial,
political and historical and has defined 4 model types of nations:
 European Type - a priority Factor - language, culture and common historical development
in a certain time period. All European nations can be included in this group.
 American type - a priority factor - culture and language that came from Europe and
adapted to local conditions. An important role is played by historical affiliation, skin
colour and religion.
 Asian type - a priority factor - country, language and often also religion and historical
development.
 African type - the least developed and most multiethnic, which was caused by decolonization
of the continent and fragmentation into small states.
Concept of the nation according to the Czech historian Miroslav Hroch has existed since
the ancient Middle Ages and has been continuously moving to modern languages, with the
meaning of the term changing, not only in terms of time but also in the context of the
transition between languages - in England the concept of the nation was closely linked with
the notion of the state, in Germany the translation of the term Volk was more related to
common customs, language and origin, but here too, the notion of the meaning of the term
changed over the years. The common root of the word nation is Latin natio (Zpěvák, 2017).
Vlachová and Řeháková (2004) emphasize that the topic of national identity is one of
the most important in contemporary social sciences research topics. The notion of national
identity is today not only frequently discussed and centered, but also a complicated concept.
Scientists who deal with this topic often discuss both the theoretical content of the concept
of "national identity" and the possibilities of its empiricism. As far as the theoretical definition
is concerned, national identities are one of the collective social identities. It can be
defined as the positive relationship of an individual to his nation.
Another definition is according Zpěvák (2017). National identity refers to the sense of
belonging one has to a state or a nation, or a sense of solidarity one feels with a particular
group without regard to one's actual citizenship status. This is not a trait with which people
are born; rather, experiences from the common waystations of people's lives build their
sense of national identity.
Barrett and Davis (2008) define the concept of “nation” as a named human community
that occupies its historic homeland, has a shared history, a common mass public culture,
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
44
myths of common ancestry, shared symbols, traditions and customs, and demonstrates selfawareness
as a nation. Usually, nations also have a common language, economy, and judicial
systém. Most people have silnge national identity or multiple nations. For example,
people whose parents come from different nations, as well as first and second generation
immigrants may have multiple national identities.
According to Smith (1991), in the contemporary, modern world, where the world is divided
into individual national states, the national identity is based mainly on democracy,
sovereignty and collective identification
Tartakovsky (2010) divided national identity for example in to next parts:
 A subjective conviction (self-categorization) as to which nation one belongs
 A strong sense of national affiliation as part of the individual’s identit
 Emotions (positive or negative) toward the nation
 Subjective opinions regarding the current aims and problems of the nation
 Knowledge of and a willingness to internalize the national culture and values and to
follow national behavioural norms, etc.
Piatek (2015) writes about National Identification. The main characteristics of national
identification among national minorities, including Polish minorities living in Eastern Europe
and Asia are relatively high sense of solidarity within the group, awareness of cultural
community, attachment to historical traditions, local patriotism and having an imagined
“foreign homeland”. In Fig. 5, below you can see components of national identity based on
Piatek (2015). Piatek divided national identity in to 6 components: Common national inte-
rests
 National charakteristics
 Community of common history
 National solidarity
 Political values
 Common culture
National
identity
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
45
Fig. 5: Components of national identity
Source: Piatek, 2015.
National identity is a phenomenon which must be analysed at the three levels: Haller
and Ressler (2006)
 The level of the individual person - nationalism is often considered as a concomitant
of modernization.
 The political system - the political-administrative unity of a state cannot exist as
such alone, but must represent also a kind of “cultural community”. Only in this
case, a satisfying level of mutual trust and internal communication can take place
between governments and people and between the members of a nation.
 The ideological level - this aspect of the modern state contains the idea of a specific
historical mission of a nation, a certain interpretation of its past actions and experiences,
of its territorial anchoring and cultural uniqueness, a legitimation of its mission
for the future.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
46
QUESTIONS
1.) Popular culture (commonly called pop culture) is:
a) a set of ideas, thoughts, insights, attitudes, memes, impressions, and other pheno-
mena
b) the legal set-up of your business
c) horizontal and diagonal structure
2.) According to Bertolini (2016) concept of cultural awareness is divided into degrees.
a) 4
b) 5
c) 6
3.) The nation has 5 dimensions: psychological, cultural, territorial, political and
a) regional
b) personal
c) historical
ANSWERS
1a, 2a, 3c.
OTHER SOURCES
MATEICIUC, A., 2009. Interkulturální management a multikulturní kompetence.
Opava, SU.
MEAD, R. and T. G. ANDREWS, 2009. International Management: Culture and
Beyond. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-405-17399-5.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
47
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The concept of culture was originally associated with the cultivation of agricultural land
(agri culture). The basis of the concept of culture as a characteristic of human education
was laid by M. T. Cicero in his Tusclian conversations. Culture represents a sum of material
and spiritual values created by mankind. Culture on the one hand as the material outcomes
of human activity (where we rank the products of human activity), and on the other, the
spiritual creations of people. Culture in a narrower sense include, for example, music, literature,
art, or even religion and philosophy to develop and refine people. In this sense, it is
understood, for example, a "cultural section" in newspapers, a "cultural journal", etc. Intercultural
management explains the behaviour of people in organizations around the world
and shows people how to work in organizations with employees and client populations
from many different cultures.
The nation is the highest type of ethnic group. From the original ethnic group, then nationalities
and then peoples developed. Most definitions are based on the common features
of connecting people to the community. These characters are primarily culture, tradition,
common language, mentality, customs and traditions. Nation has 5 dimensions: psychological,
cultural, territorial, political and historical and it exists 4 model types of nations:
European Type, American type, Asian type and African type. The notion of national identity
is today not only frequently discussed and centered, but also a complicated concept.
National identity can be understood as a collective social identity that manifests itself as a
positive relationship of an individual to one's own nation and country, a sense of belonging
to a given nation.
DIVISION OF CULTURES
48
4 DIVISION OF CULTURES
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the division of cultures and cultural intelligence. This
chapter will also include the introduction of selected models for comparative analysis of
culture, with an emphasis on Hofstede, Trompenaars and Lewis.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To explain division of cultures and cultural intelligence,
 To describe division of cultures according to Hofstede,
 To describe division of cultures according to Trompenaars,
 To describe division of cultures according to Lewis.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Cultural intelligence, Division of cultures, external, facts and causes, Hofstede, internal,
Lewis, Trompenaars.
4.1 Division of cultures, cultural intelligence
The authors wrote in chapter 2, that culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a
particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music
and arts. Culture is divided into material (material) and intangible (spiritual):
 Material culture - products of human activity, artifacts,
 Intangible culture - rules, standards, taboos, language, speech, gestures, etc.
According to Štěpař (2012) we can distinguish 2 approaches:
1. Culture is a universal human phenomenon, specifically human activity, which is
not owned by other biological forms of life.
2. Culture is perceived and studied as a special way of life different groups of people.
Division of
culture
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
49
Culture therefore includes everything that man does not produce, but:
 He must learn to become a useful member of his society.
 What he usually does not make, but he takes over from the elders.
 What is more of a collective and often anonymous, staged work of many generations.
 What is being maintained by people taking care of it and caring for it.
 What the community combines and at the same time distinguishes itself from others.
A cultural divide can have significant impact on ninternational operations on global organizations
that require communication between people from different cultures.
Commonly, ignorance of the cultural differences such as social norms and taboos may lead
to communication failure within the organization. Internal causes of cultural divide refer to
causes based on innate or personal characteristics of an individual, such as a personal way
of thinking, an internal mental structure or habit that influences how a person acts. Cultural
divide can also be caused by external influences that shape the way an individual thinks
about people from other cultures (Prentice and Miller, 2001).
Škarabelová, Neshybová and Rektořík (2007) differentiate the basic elements of the economic
system of culture:
 Cultural processes - From the economic point of view, cultural processes are conditioned
by certain inputs of basic production factors (labor, capital goods, material
inputs). The peculiarity of these processes lies in terms of input into highly specialized
work, sometimes unique, creative character. The course of cultural processes
can be marked by phases such as:
o Creation
o Production
o Mediation and distribution
o Consumption
o protection and maintenance of cultural values
 Cultural institutions and cultural products - The main task of the cultural sector
is the production and realization of cultural goods and services, respectively. cultural
products. This task is accomplished through cultural institutions. In each country,
in each timeframe, these cultural institutions are somehow owned by somebody
arranged and controlled by somebody. These three basic characteristics are mutually
dependent - for example, ownership is one of the basic factors influencing the
organizational structure of the industry.
DIVISION OF CULTURES
50
Little is said about cultural intelligence and a lot of emotional intelligence. It is considered
to be able to perceive, assimilate, understand and balance emotions of others, to promote
emotional and intellectual growth. From this information we interpret the world
around us, which determines our way of thinking and behaviour. We usually attach great
importance to talking about people-to-people relationships, but when relationships are
based on people from different cultures, we need to consider other intelligence: cultural
intelligence (Anonymous, 2018)
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Cultural intelligence is the ability to adapt to interact with people from different cultures.
Cultural intelligence consists of four factors. Motivation factor, cognitive factor, other
metacognitive factor and ultimately behavioural factor Ang and Dyne (2008).
 Motivational dimension is the ability to lead your attention and energy towards
learning to work in intercultural situations. It is related to perceived self-efficacy in
intercultural interactions.
 The cognitive dimension of cultural intelligence refers to the individual's knowledge
of different standards, customs and conventions in various cultural groups.
 The metacognitive dimension of cultural intelligence represents the ability of cultural
consciousness and awareness during intercultural interaction. First, it supports
active thinking about people with different cultural backgrounds. Secondly, it begins
critical thinking about the habits and the promotion of their way of thinking, and
thirdly, leads the individual to re-evaluate their cognitive schemes.
 The last behavioural cultural intelligence, that represents the individual's ability to
express themselves appropriately in interaction with people from different cultural
backgrounds, includes both verbal and non-verbal manifestations of behaviour. It
should be noted that behaviour is the most visible component of social interaction.
According to Cambridge Dictionary is cultural intelligence knowledge or understanding
of how a person from a particular country, race, religion, etc. lives and behaves, and how
this affects the way they do business: Cultural Intelligence is essential for anyone who
wants to do business internationally.
According to Thomas and Inkson (2017) cultural intelligence consists of three parts, Fig.
6, below. Culturally intelligent person requires knowledge of what culture is, how cultures
vary, and how culture affects behaviour. The culturally intelligent person needs to practice
mindfulness, the ability to pay attention reflectively and creatively to cues in the situations
encountered and to one’s own knowledge and feelings. Based on knowledge and mindfulness,
the culturally intelligent person develops cross-cultural skills and becomes competent
across a range of situations, choosing the appropriate behaviour from a repertoire of
behaviours that are correct for a range of intercultural situations.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
51
Fig. 6: Components of cultural intelligence
Source: Thomas and Inkson, 2017.
One who has a low cultural intelligence value tends to follow the behaviour of others
through his own cultural lens. When he comes from ordinary circumstances and meets with
Japanese colleagues who do not talk much ... they can assume they are boring or even
hostile.
According to BBC (2018), we can cultural intelligence to learn. It also emphasizes the
importance of traveling and learning new cultures. There is no substitute for direct personal
experience in another country. While understanding a particular culture may be useful, it
may not even predict the ability to effectively engage in a new environment. People who
spend more time in multiple places are more likely to have a higher cultural intelligence
than those who have lived for decades in one environment, he explains. But explicit learning
of some key concepts makes this process easier. Employees can take a cultural intelligence
test and then work with a trainer to identify potential problems. Then they discuss
ways to adjust their behaviour.
Cultural intelligence offers a number of benefits, including: Paz (2016)
 Creating productive relationships based on giving importance to people’s differen-
ces
 Communicating effectively in different cultural settings
 Establishing a common ground
 Maximizing teamwork in groups where people act and think differently
 Differences can be used to improve innovation processes and assess intercultural
communication
 Maximizing corporate brand investment
 Providing tools for improving sales success, people performance and brand image
 Encouraging people to be the best they can be, etc.
DIVISION OF CULTURES
52
4.2 Division of cultures according to Hofstede, Trompenaars
and Lewis
The Hofstede cultural dimension was discussed in detail in chapter 2. Therefore, the
most important findings will be briefly summarized here about division of cultures according
to Hofstede.
The multiculturalism of working teams around the world is growing. This puts increasing
demands on senior managers. They often have team members from different countries
in the team. Each individual has a unique individual approach to solving problems (not
only) at work, individual culture. At the same time, however, the country of its origin defines
to a certain extent the basic parameters of its working culture. These so-called cultural
dimensions have been defined by Geert Hofstede in the 1970s and developed in a broad
survey defining the cultural dimensions of individual nationalities. The precise determination
of each cultural dimension ranges from 0-100.
Geert Hofstede, a researcher of cultural dimension research, is a Dutch social psychologist.
These cultural dimensions have been identified and defined by research in more than
50 IBM branches around the world in the sixties and seventies. They can be characterized
as national, regional, community, organizational and class culture, shaping individuals' ac-
cess.
Hofstede's quantitative survey found out what practical implications for a particular
country are the values measured in each dimension. These results were later supplemented
with descriptive information on the countries concerned. In 2010, in the book "Cultures
and Organizations: Mind Software", the number of countries involved in the research expanded
to 76.
Hofstede explained six different culture of dimension on which countries can be ranked:
Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Long-term/Short-term Orientation and Restraint/Indulgence, see chapter 2. In
2008 was added in Values Survey Module (VSM08) new culture dimension – Monumentalism
vs. self-effacement. The VSM08 was developed by Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede,
Michael Minkov and Henk Vinken on the basis of our 2005 book “Cultures and
Organizations: Software of the Mind”, 2nd edition and Minkov’s 2007 book “What Makes
Us Different and Similar”.
Monumentalism is a society that rewards individuals who are proud and unchangeable
(as proverbial monuments). The opposite is the self-affacement (inconspicuity) it represents
a society in which humility and flexibility are rewarded. This index correlates with
the index long-term orientation, but includes other aspects.
Geert Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions is one of the most well-known models
that describes the differences between cultures. It provides a general overview, helping to
Cultural di-
mensions
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
53
better understand and understand other cultures. Hofstede's cultural dimension tells us what
people expect from other cultures and how to behave.
According to Huk (2016) the Czechs in the project teams achieve rather neutral values
with a tendency towards a conservative and cynical approach, so the Dutch are a highly
individualistic people, with their optimistic approach and the ability to enjoy their lives, but
also solidarity and willing to seek a compromise. On the contrary, the Indians are firmly
insisting on a hierarchy and confessing collective attitude. At the same time, however, they
do not make a big head of the duties and plans they take with reserve. Interestingly, they
have a common focus with Bohemia on success and pessimistic approach to life, see Fig.
7, below.
Fig. 7: Czech republic in comparison wit Nehterlands and India
Source: Huk, 2016.
Anohter example of selected culture dimensions according to Hofstede is British culture,
that is highly individualistic and quite masculine, meaning that it recognizes male values
such as strength, penetration, performance. Another feature is the low distance of power,
so the British society is very egalitarian. The degree of avoidance of uncertainty is also low
for the British, so the company does not need to create many rules and laws, and at the
same time this is related to the low level of external sentiment. The last dimension of longterm
orientation is unprepared for the British.
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), for example, state five categories of problems, universal
for all peoples:
 the essence of man (Is a person basically good or bad?);
 relationship to nature (Do you have to subdue nature, live with it in harmony, or
control it?);
 relation to time (What is important and what should we focus on - past, present or
future?);
DIVISION OF CULTURES
54
 The essence of human activity (Should one be oriented to live and experience, to do
something and to accomplish something, or to develop and become something?).
 The relationship of an individual with other people (Should one be independent of
society and dominate his or her personal goals, or should he primarily focus on goals
and harmony within the group?).
The Dutch Fons Trompenaars (1993) simplified Kluckhohna and Strodtbeck's
breakdowns into three sets of problems: the relationship to humans, the relationship to nature,
and the relation to time. Within these three categories, he identified seven dimensions
of national culture, the content of which is reflected in managerial practice.
As the Mind Tools Content Team (2018) wrote, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
developed the model after spending 10 years researching the preferences and values of
people in dozens of cultures around the world. As part of this, they sent questionnaires to
more than 46,000 managers in 40 countries. hey found that people from different cultures
aren't just randomly different from one another; they differ in very specific, even predictable,
ways. This is because each culture has its own way of thinking, its own values and
beliefs, and different preferences placed on a variety of different factors. Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner concluded that what distinguishes people from one culture compared
with another is where these preferences fall in one of the following seven dimensions:
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997), Lukášová (2010)
 Universalism versus particularism. The behaviour of universalist cultures is based
on rules and firmly anchored standards. These are also observed when there is no
need to adhere to them. An important part of life is a contract and a trusted person is
the one who respects them. There is only one truth, and one that has been agreed
upon. Contracts are decisive and relationships are secondary. Particularists, unlike
universalists, are not oriented to rules but to friendship and personal relationships.
For close friends, they will do what the rules "do not allow". To the truth and reality
there is not only one view, but more views, according to each participant in the negotiations.
Legal agreements are readily customized and it is a trustworthy person who
accepts changing circumstances. Stores are based on relationships and a good relationship
is more than a contract.
 Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism - people with these values are very
much attached to their own freedoms and decision-making. Their interests are priority.
Other people are using targets, but they tend to be larger and less solid. More important
than a relationship is their own goal. These people can be very important to your organization,
especially if you need to quickly reach simpler goals where you do not need
more people to work together. Collective cultures are the focus of the group. Managing
activities are group oriented and onlyinfluenced bythe individual's performance. People
achieve results in groups, responsibility for individual performance is also group, and
those who perform best do not want rewards for themselves but want to share their success
with others in the group. If bargaining is needed, collective bargaining is preferred.
Cultural di-
mensions
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
55
In unexpected circumstances, representatives of collectivist cultures do not decide on
the spot, but make decisions on the organization.
 Specific versus diffuse. The members of specific cultures are direct, factual and
purposeful. Their speech is characterized by precision, austerity, certainty and transparency.
The moral principles in the negotiations are predetermined. Managers separate
working relationships from other relationships. Subordinate guidance is characterized
by precise and detailed instructions. Management is accomplishing goals
and fulfilling standards. On the other hand, members of diffuse cultures are indirect
and seemingly "aimless". It has the impression of evasiveness and ambiguity. Morality
is highly situational for them, moral aspects of behaviour depend on people
and context. Personal and business matters are permeating with each other. Instructions
are given vague and ambiguous.
 Neutral versus emotional culture. Members of neutral cultures do not reveal what
they think and feel. Emotions hide and suppress, even from time to time, unexpectedly.
They admire cool and rational behaviour, their speech is monotonous. Significant
mimics, gesticulations, or other significant expressions are taboos for them.
On the other hand, members of emotional cultures uncover their thoughts and feelings,
both verbally and in a wordless way. Their tensions give way, and emotions
manifest naturally and vehemently. They are admired to express feelings, and their
expression is dramatic
 Sscription versus achievement orientation. Orientation on attribution and achievement
orientation relate to how status is acquired in the respective cultures. In performance-oriented
cultures, status and respect are derived from what a person has
knowledge of and what he / she achieves - the acquisition of status is thus associated
with a demonstration of performance and success. In attribution-oriented cultures,
status is attributed to age, social origin, education, profession, connections, etc.
 Orientations to past, present and future. Individuals of different nations attribute
different values to their past, present, and future in their lives. In past-oriented cultures,
the origin of the family, the firm, or the nation is emphasized. People are motivated
to keep "old golden times". Respect is demonstrated to ancestors, predecessors,
founders and older people. Everything is seen in the context of history or tradition.
Present activities are important in present-day cultures. Against plans there is
nothing to complain about, but they are seldom fulfilled. Everything is viewed from
the point of view of the current situation. Future-oriented cultures are excitedly planning
and developing strategies. We talk about prospects, potential, aspirations and
future success. The center of interest is youth and its possibilities.
 Inner-directed versus outer-directed orientation. Different peoples of different nations
can distinguish two main orientations in relation to nature and surroundings: internal and
external. Culture members with an internal orientation feel they can influence and control
the environment around them. They are focused on themselves and on their organization
and their surroundings behave in a dominant, aggressive manner. They are dissatisfied
when the environment appears to be very variable or "out of control". The members of
culture with an outside orientation are of the opinion that they need to live in harmony
DIVISION OF CULTURES
56
with nature and the environment. They are therefore targeted at "others", ie colleagues,
partners, customers, and sensitive to their needs. Theyare willing to compromise and content
with the natural development of things and events.
According to Světlík (2011) Trompenaars divided too the types of organizations according
to the influence of national culture into four forms: incubator, guided missile, family
and Eifel tower. The main criteria for this breakdown is the focus of culture on task resp.
people and relationships rather hierarchical or egalitarian. More information you can find
in Fig. 8, below.
Fig. 8: Trompenaars’ cross-cultural organizational cultures
Source: Cannon, 2016.
TO REMEMBER
One of the key issues related to building quality work teams in multinational organizations
is the factors that affect the overcoming of communication and cultural barriers.
These factors include, above all, education, the level of linguistic knowledge and ultimately
common interests and the horizon of values. To overcome cultural differences, it is
necessary to focus on common interests arising from common values, differences that are
beyond the horizon of individual cultures to avoid and tolerate them.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
57
Trompenaars work is an attempt to deeper and more detailed specification of dimensions
that influence the thinking and social culture of different cultures. According to Lukášová
(2010) the identification of cultural dimensions and the nation-wide compilation of the content
of national cultures at country level has a clear benefit for management practice: it
helps to realize cultural differences, to understand deep, historically determined determinants
of individual nations' behaviour and to predict cultural aspects of behaviour of organizations
and managers of individual countries. However, it should be borne in mind that
individuals do not share all the features of their nation's culture to the same extent and that,
therefore, on the basis of the knowledge of the contents of the national cultures of individual
countries, we can not clearly predict the behaviour of individuals. The rate of representation
of the content characteristics of the national culture has a normal distribution in the population,
ie corresponds to the Gaussian curve.
In Fig. 9, an example is given of using Trompenarrs´ cultural dimensios among nations.
Fig. 9: Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions
Source: Fourboul, 2016.
The Lewis Model - is the latest to gain world-wide recognition, being developed in the
1990s and articulated in Richard Lewis’s blockbuster, When Cultures Collide (1996),
which won the US Book of the Month Award in 1997. Lewis, after visiting 135 countries
and working in more than 20 of them, came to the conclusion that humans can be divided
into 3 clear categories, based not on nationality or religion but on BEHAVIOUR. He named
his typologies: Světlík (2011), see Fig. 10, below.
DIVISION OF CULTURES
58
 Linear-active, task-oriented cultures, organized planners, people from these cultures
perform at one point one thing, concentrating strongly on the performance of this
activity and doing so according to the exact timetable. An important aspect of successful
mastering a task is his analysis, his dividing and solving individual parts in
a linear time conception. People concentrate on managing the task within each segment
and thereby perfect handling it. In a linearly active culture, explicit communication
with a low communication context prevails.
 Multi-active, very flexible and planning activity precision are secondary in comparison
with the importance of interpersonal relationships. People from a multi-cultural
culture do not like to finish their conversation, time is mainly invested in interpersonal
relationships. Extrovert manifestations of behaviour, talking, cooperative.
Unpredictable in keeping the timetable, facts are a flexible matter, depending on how
it works. Orientation towards people, manifestations often emotional, strong nonverbal
communication, usually jumps into speech and it is also common to mix social
and labor issues.
 Reactive, members of this culture rarely initiate a bilateral discussion, rather listen
and then respond and formulate their answer. Rarely thoughts are out of the way of
communication, rarely interrupting the interpretation of the other person. They are
more about introverted cultures, as are members of this culture to a lesser degree
they express their opinions externally. They are mostly introverted, patient, quiet,
polite, good listeners. Avoid confrontation, non-verbal communication is insignificant.
The British and the Swedes are representatives of a linear culture with highly
reactive elements.
Fig. 10:The Lewis Model – Dimension of Behaviour
Source: Madden, 2013.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
59
Fig. 11 shows an examples of difference amog nations according to Lewis model. Blue
is a cool colour denoting calm factual planners, discreet but in control. Red signifies
warmth, emotion, loquacity, perhaps passion. Yellow indicates soothing harmony, sought
by courteous, accommodating listeners.
Fig. 11: The Lewis Model
Source: Lewis, 2019.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for other examples of Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions.
QUESTIONS
1.) Motivational dimension of cultural intelligence:
a) represents the individual's ability to express themselves appropriately in interaction with
people from different cultural backgrounds, includes both verbal and non-verbal manifestations
of behaviour
DIVISION OF CULTURES
60
b) ability to lead your attention and energy towards learning to work in intercultural situations.
It is related to perceived self-efficacy in intercultural interactions.
c) refers to the individual's knowledge of different standards, customs and conventions in
various cultural groups
2.) Author´s of cultural dimension „Monumentalism vs. self-effacement“ are:
a) Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
b) Trompenaars
c) Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and Henk Vinken
3.) The Lewis Model being developed in the_
a) 1970s
b) 1980s
c) 1990s
ANSWERS
1b, 2c, 3c.
OTHER SOURCES
TROMPENAARS F. and CH. HAMPDEN-TURNER, 1997. Riding The Waves of Culture,
Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 185788176.
USUNIER, J. C., 1996. Marketing Across Cultures. 2. London; New York; TorontoPrentice-Hall.
ISBN 0-13-236175-2.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
61
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
We can culture divided into material (material) and intangible (spiritual). It exists 2 approaches.Culture
is a universal human phenomenon, specifically human activity, which is
not owned by other biological forms of life and on the other hand is culture perceived and
studied as a special way of life different groups of people. Cultural intelligence is the ability
to adapt to interact with people from different cultures and it consists of four factors. Motivation
factor, cognitive factor, other metacognitive factor and ultimately behavioural
factor. We can cultural intelligence to learn. It also emphasizes the importance of traveling
and learning new cultures. Cultural intelligence offers a number of benefits, including for
example creating productive relationships based on giving importance to people’s differences,
establishing a common ground. maximizing teamwork in groups where people act and
think differently, differences can be used to improve innovation, providing tools for improving
sales success, people performance and brand image and encouraging people to be the
best they can be.
Cultural dimensions have been defined by Geert Hofstede in the 1970s and developed
in a broad survey defining the cultural dimensions of individual nationalities. Hofstede explained
six different culture of dimension on which countries can be ranked: Power
Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance,
Long-term/Short-term Orientation and Restraint/Indulgence, see chapter 2. In 2008 was
added in Values Survey Module (VSM08) new culture dimension – Monumentalism vs.
self-effacement. Trompenaars divided the types of organizations according to the influence
of national culture into four forms: incubator, guided missile, family and Eifel tower.The
Lewis Model - is the latest to gain world-wide recognition, being developed in the 1990s.
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
62
5 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter briefly tackles the verbal and non-verbal communication and its importance
for business communication. In this chapter will be mentioned types of communication and
two major forms of verbal communication and too selected categories of non-verbal
communication.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To define verbal communication and non-verbal communication,
 To explain the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication,
 To give examples of verbal and non-verbal communication.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Gestures, intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, listening, nonverbal
communication, oral communication, personal appearance, postures, public communication,
reading, skills, small group comunication, types of communication, verbal
communication, writing.
5.1 Verbal communication
The communication comes from Latin communicaire, which means sharing, participating,
communicating. This is the process in which it occurs to exchange meaning between
people with the help of a conventional symbol system. This is mainly the language, but we
can also communicate, for example, emotions, to which language we often do not need
(Adair, 2004)
The very word of communication has more meanings, in this chapter we will deal only
with social communication, that takes place between two or more people. Speech is the
articulated, most commonly the sound manifestation of a person serving primarily for
communication. Every speech consists of words that make up the dictionary.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
63
Communication and communication skills are one of the most important human abilities.
By communicating we mean the mutual transfer of shared meanings among people.
According to Doyle (2018) almost every job requires workers to use verbal communication
skills. That’s why verbal skills are highly ranked on the candidate evaluation checklists used
bymanyjob interviewers. Effective verbal communication skills include more than just talking.
Verbal communication encompasses both how you deliver messages and how you receive
them. Communication is a soft skill, and it is one that is important to every employer. The
three different types of communication are verbal, non-verbal and visual.
The two major forms of verbal communication are written (or typed) and oral. Oral
communication consists of words, sentences and phrases. Success depends on the speaking
ablitity and on the listening skills. The overall impression of the second person is made up
of 7% speech, 38% voice and 55% body appearance (speech, body movements and attitudes,
facial expressions, kinetics, etc.).
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
According to Vymětal (2008) verbal communication means speaking through words
through the appropriate language. In broader terms verbal communication includes both
oral and written communication, direct or mediated or live or reproduced.
Some of the types of communication we can divide 1. According to Area of Operation
2. According to Relationship 3. According to Direction 4. According to Means, Fig. 12,
below.
Fig. 12: Types of communication
Source: Sharma, 2019.
Types of
communi-
cation
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
64
Selected types of verbal communication:
 Intrapersonal communication -This type of conversations are extremly private,
silent conversations we have with ourself.
 Interpersonal communication - Between two individuals, one-on-one con-
versation.
 Small group communication - More than two people involved (board meetings,
team meetigns)
 Public communication - One individual addresses a large gathering of people (public
speeches)
TO REMEMBER
Communications skills are part of soft skills. Under the term of communication skills,
we can find a wide range of professional areas such as argumentation, assertiveness,
effective communication involving an important component of verbal and non-verbal
communication, listening and feedback, communication over the phone, etc.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
People who communicate with a friendly tone and smile always have the adge. It is
important be friendly to the others and think before you speak. Be clear and don´t talk too
much. Don´t forget to be consise. Speak with confidence. Focuse on your body language
(Smith, 2001). Verbal communication skills according to Mikuláštík (2003), Channel Crossings
s. r. o. (2019) we can divide into:
LISTENING SKILLS
The basis for successful communication between people is the ability to listen to each
other. Listening does not mean just to hear, but it means to understand and comprehend.
 Active listening is a basic social skill that allows you to be in good contact with the
communication partner and creates space for exhaustive communication. It brings
benefits to both parties. It's just one of the many forms of listening that we do not
normally use. Its use is mostly targeted (when we have reason to listen actively)
 Passive listening
o It means receiving information
o It does not provide feedback
o It is not connected with understanding
o the listener acts as a willow
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
65
ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The biggest advantage of oral communication is providing immediate feedback. The
advantage is also that this communication (oral verbal) can complement non-verbal
communication. The monologue is addressed to individuals or a larger group. Dialogue is
a verbal conversation between two people with the use of verbal and non-verbal means.
Dialogue can also be grouped (a special form is a discussion). To modern types of oral
communication belongs: video phones and video conferences, podcast, voice over the internet
protocol (skype). Oral communication skills are important for: managerial role, work
place success, secure a new job, advance your career. Careful listening and speaking clearly
si important and it helps respond in a proper manner. Always make an eye contact with the
listeners. Asking questions and answering the question with correct details.
READING SKILLS
Understanding the written text, using the written text and thinking about it in order to
achieve the individual's goals, develop his or her knowledge and potential and to participate
actively in society. Readers use strategies to understand what they read.
 Skimming for gist - fast reading to gain basic awareness of content, very important
skill, removing students from the need to understand everything, read slowly, and
not to get the overall picture of what the text is about.
 Scanning for confirmation - we use this technique to pass the text to confirm our
previous knowledge of the subject, and if we encounter new information, we add it
to your knowledge.
 Scanning for specific information - activity that we normally carry out in search
of the telephone directories, timetables, etc. The emphasis is placed not on a detailed
understanding of the text, but to find accurate information.
 Extensive reading - reading of long texts (novels, newspapers, etc.). Students read
for their own pleasure or prepare a presentation in class.
 Intensive reading - reading where understanding of all parts of the text is required,
and the parts of the activity are detailed questions of understanding.
WRITTING SKILLS
Written communication provides records, legal documents. In some cases, cost reductions
can also be achieved. The disadvantage is the lack of immediate feedback and also the
possible uncertainty of communication in case of poor written formulation. Written
communication belongs to everyday life of all of us. I do not know a person who would
never write a letter, email, or an SMS message. Good writing skills are bedrock of good
commnication and could help you to connect with people. You are able to write clearly,
concisely and correctly. Bad writing creates a terrible impression.
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
66
To writting skills belongs for example:
 Editing - adaptation / adaptation (separately / in groups) of written work in a class.
 Grammatical accuracy in longer written expressions.
 Punctuation, readability, clarity, style, variety of language.
 appropriate means of expression in relation to the purpose of the text.
 Written assignment planning.
5.2 Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication or body language is based on the use of so-called non-verbal
means. I tis using entire bodies. A great amount of human behaviour is emphasized through
non-verbal signals. The attitude of a person includes uprightness and body movements for
a certain period of time. The ability to read and interpret a person's attitude can lead to
gaining a lot of information about the other person. Since many non-verbal signals are unconscious,
they can be a great additional source to understand what the other person thinks
and how they feel.
We communicate non-verbally by: Křivohlavý (1988), Mikuláštík (2003)
 Gestures, head movements and other body movements
 Body position
 The expressions of the face
 Eye contact
 Choosing and changing distances and occupying a space position
 Physical contact (touch)
 Tone of voice and other non-verbal aspects of speech
 Clothes, adornment, physical and other aspects of our own appearance or our own
space
In summary we can divide above mentioned signals of non – verbal communication in
to 4 categories:
 Aesthetic – involves cretive expression (dance, music, theater, etc,...),
 Physical – involves bodily movements used during social interactions (smile, frown,
wink,...),
 Signs – include any signals that are used or displayed to communicate a message or
that have a special meaning,
 Symbols – any material objects (jewelry, cars, clothing, etc,...).
According to Palán (2018) non-verbal communication has different forms:
 kinetics - Ray Birdwhistell is an American Anthropologists who founded kinesics
as a field of inquiry and research. Kinesics is the study of Body Language. The
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
67
study of the way in which certain body movements and gestures serve as a form
of non-verbal communicatio gestures - the use of normalized movements (negative
movements, warning movements, word reporting, etc.), see Fig. 13, below.
Fig. 13: Body language
Source: Patel, 2014.
 mimics - expression of emotional attitude by facial expression, All facial organs
on human face indicates facially expressive message. Facial expressions comes
naturally hence it is beyond the control of speaker.
Fig. 14: Facial expressions
Source: Leading Personality, 2018.
 eye contact- communication with eyes. As this Fig. 15, below shows, eye contact
in itself can convey so much meaning and this is why eye contact a very important
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
68
piece to all face-to-face communication that happens. Your eyes are sending a
message on their own to your audience and it can effect your credibility as well
as set a tone for your message.
Fig. 15: Eye contacts
Source: Flores, 2018.
 proxemics – is the study of human use of space and the effects that population
density has on behaviour, communication, and social interaction. There are 4 categories
in Proxemics namely 1. Intimate 2. Personal 3. Social & 4. Public. Main
idea of Edward T. is that people from different cultures have different concepts
of what constitutes one's "personal space" and that the way we use the space
around us is generally shaped by our culture, see Fig. 16, below.
Fig. 16: Proxemics & Personal Space
Source: Kington, 2013.
 posture - can reflect people´s emotions, attitudes and intentions. How people
stant could say a lot about what they are thinking and feeling, see Fig 17.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
69
Fig. 17: Posture & Body language
Source: Body Language - Science topic, 2018
 haptics – touching behaviour. In general we can divide touch in: Srivastava
(2014), Study-Body-Language (2016),
o touch of animals
 Gentling – stroking and touching of newborn animals.
 Licking – to clean the offspring. Also plays an important role in
stimulating the physiological functions of newborn animals and
therefore contributes to their survival.
Fig. 18: Touch of animals
Source: Srivastava, 2014.
o Touch in humans - Tactile communication in the early stages of life may
establish the foundation of all other forms of communication that humans
later develop. As one grows older, the frequency of touch decreases. Touch
sometimes help better than verbal communication. There are many costumes
and ways you can touch others and each carries with it some sentimental value
or purpose. Below, you can find examples of touch divided by:
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
70
 Friendship-Warmth Touch
Fig. 19: Friendship-Warmth Touch
Source: Suttie, 2016
 Professional-Functional Touch
Fig. 20: Professional-Functional Touch
Source: Srivastava, 2014.
 Social-Polite Touch
Fig. 21: Social-Polite Touch
Source: Wrench, 2009
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
71
 Love-Intimacy Touch
Fig. 22: Love-Intimacy Touch
Source: Srivastava, 2014
 Sexual-Arousal Touch, Hugging and Kissing
Fig. 24: Sexual-Arousal Touch, Hugging
Source: Lobo, 2006
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples of non-verbal communication.
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
72
QUESTIONS
1.) Intrapersonal communication is:
a) This type of conversations are extremly private, silent conversations we have with
ourself.
b) More than two people involved (board meetings, team meetigns)
c) One individual addresses a large gathering of people (public speeches)
2.) Scanning for specific information is:
a) activity that we normally carry out in search of the telephone directories, timetables,
etc. The emphasis is placed not on a detailed understanding of the text, but to find
accurate information
b) fast reading to gain basic awareness of content, very important skill, removing students
from the need to understand everything, read slowly, and not to get the overall
picture of what the text is about
c) reading of long texts (novels, newspapers, etc.). Students read for their own pleasure
or prepare a presentation in class.
3.) Haptics:
a) reflect people´s emotions, attitudes and intentions
b) is the study of human use of space
c) touching behaviour
ANSWERS
1a, 2a, 3c.
OTHER SOURCES
GIBSON, R., 2002. Intercultural business communication. 1st ed. Oxford Univ. Press.
ISBN 978-019-4421-805.
KŘIVOHLAVÝ, J., 1988. Neverbální komunikace. Praha: SPN. ISBN 17-297-87.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
73
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Communication and communication skills are one of the most important human abilities.
By communicating we mean the mutual transfer of shared meanings among people.
The communication comes from. The three different types of communication are verbal,
non-verbal and visual. Verbal communication skills we can divide in to: Listening skills listening
does not mean just to hear, but it means to understand and comprehend. We distinguish
active and passive listening. Oral communication skills - The biggest advantage of
oral communication is providing immediate feedback. The advantage is also that this
communication (oral, verbal) can complement non-verbal communication. Reading skills.
Non-verbal communication or body language is based on the use of so-called non-verbal
means. I tis using entire bodies. A great amount of human behaviour is emphasized through
non-verbal signals. We communicate non-verbally by gestures, head movements and other
body movements, body position, the expressions of the face, eye contact, choosing and
changing distances and occupying a space position, physical contact, tone of voice and
other non-verbal aspects of speech and clothes, adornment, physical and other aspects of
our own appearance or our own space.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
74
6 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the scope of effective intercultural communication. This
chapter also focuses on the issue of communication techniques and barriers to communica-
tion.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To introduction of effective communication,
 To describe essentials of effective communication,
 To interpret the communication techniques,
 To specify barriers of communication.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
barriers to communication, body language, communication techniques, confidence,
effective communication, essentials skills, eye contact, feedback, knowledge, listening,
non-verbal communication positive relationships, understanding.
6.1 Introduction to effective communication
According to Kasliwal (2018) communication is the sum of all things that one person
does, when he wants to create understanding in the mind of others. It is a transfer of facts,
thoughts, emotions and information between two or more than two people. Communication
i too:
 A process through which individuals mutually exchange their ideas, values, thoughts
and feelings with one or more people.
 It is the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver so that it is understood
in the right context.
 It is the means of making the transfer of information productive and goal oriented.
 It is the process of sharing information, ideas and attitude between individuals.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
75
For effective communication are important: see Fig. 25, below.
Fig. 25: Communication and essentials of effective Communication
Source: Kasliwal, 2018
According to Adair (2004) the communication process is always between two or more
people the monologue can be considered as a form of preparation for communication with
others or for the expression of alignment with internal contradictions. Communication is
an important process of communication and building a relationship between manager and
employee. It is a means of understanding the needs of the employee. It is an instrument to
prevent the negative behaviour of an employee. It is a way to use and develop the capabilities
and abilities of an employee. It is a tool for achieving efficiency and a sense of satisfaction
of the manager. Effective communication is the key to planning, leading people,
organizing, controlling, achieving goals. It is manifested in quality: team work, solving
management tasks, written, oral and non-verbal expression. Communication is seen as a
critical part of managing knowledge.
In the communication process, feedback is also important, which is a response to some
information. It tells how the message is received and understood. This is a very important
aspect for understanding both parties. For effective communication, it is also important to
take into account the personality of the person you are communicating with. The rule of
congruence (mirroring), which says that people communicate best with who most resembles
them (Vymětal, 2008).
General principles of successful communication (recommendations that have general
validity):
 If we want to communicate with someone, we need to get it for communication = to
come up with a topic that interests a partner.
 If communication is to be beneficial, it must be bi-directional and symmetrical. The
role of the communicator and recipient must alternate.
Communi-
cations
process
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
76
We talk about science:
 to communicate - we learn from birth and
 listen is active approach of a recipient who not only hears but hears the audience and
tries to analyze them.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication may be defined as: Adair (2004), Vymětal (2008), Jiřincova
(2010)
 Using language that is appropriate to others' levels of understanding.
 Making sure others receive the information or knowledge intended.
 Developing relationships with others.
 Talking with others in a way that facilitates openness, honesty and cooperation.
 Providing feedback.
Effective communication is one of the most important keys for our success. In chapter
5 you can find more information from verbal and non-verbal communication.
Essentials skills for effective communication are: Ludden (2001), Kühlinger and Friedel
(2007)
 Listening - is a key element of communication. The science of listening is important
to entrepreneurs, managers and employees. Effective communication requires active
listening Active listening is hearing and understanding what person is saying to you.
 Non-verbal communication - is communication without words, or body language.
It takes place through ways of holding the body and its movements, facial expressions,
eyes and eye movements, touch, speech speed and volume, space control signals,
and changes in distance between communicators. Signals person who is going
to speak openly with you are relaxed legs, opened arms, friendly tone Signal of nonverbal
communication will give you an insight into how that person is feeling.
 Confidence - Trust is the foundation of everything. The most important phenomenon.
Most soft skills are useless if you do not trust others. Without confidence, you
can not convince anyone, no one will accept your suggestions or criticism. I tis important
to looking out for the non-verbal clues. Sound confident and other people
will believe you Making eye contact, use friendly tone
 Body language - Body language collectively refers to all the information that can
be read from the individual's expressions, gestures and attitudes. Body language studies
are devoted to ethology, and its results can help in police interrogation, or can
be useful for enhancing speech efficiency (whether in acting, school, HR practice or
in everyday life)
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
77
 Eye contact - is the most powerful non-verbal communication channel. The information
we receive is up to half of the overall interpersonal interaction. It is a seemingly
easy thing - to look at the counterpart in the eyes, enjoy the moment of
reconciliation and understanding, or sense antipathy, anger, rivalry.
 Always have an opened mind - Being open-minded means you have a willingness
to listen to other ideas and opinions and consider the possibility that you are wrong
or may change your own perspective.
 Give and receive feedback - Feedback is information about the past given in the
present, with the goal of influencing behaviour or performance in the future or nformation
that we are constantly giving or receiving, whether we intend to or not. In
most European countries, feedback is embedded in education, training and daily professional
activities. It is a valuable tool for indicating whether things are going in the
right direction or whether redirection is required. Giving and receiving feedback is
significant challenges for both sides.
6.2 Communication techniques and barriers of communication
The difference between a person who knows effective communication techniques and a
person who doesn’t is night and day. 85% of job success comes from having well-developed
soft skills and people skills. The practical need for "trouble-free" communication has
led to the exploration of effective ways of communication. In this sense, you are talking
about „communication techniques“:
 How to resolve conflicts constructively,
 Assertiveness, dealing with work manipulation,
 How to give feedback effectively.
Assertive behaviour is one of the important human abilities. Assertiveness is a way of
communication and behaviour, it is a way to promote your opinion, interest. Beware, do
not confuse assertiveness with aggression. Assertive behaviour is self-enforced, but the
partners leave as an equal partner. No one is the winner nor the loser. With assertiveness
you will not be born, but you can learn. Assertiveness can be used not only in work but also
in personal life. Try assertive action, surprise you how you will quickly improve. The assertive
action is based on several assertive techniques.
Communi-
cation
techniques
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
78
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES
There are a number of simple but effective communication techniques that you can use
to become more assertive. These are:
 You have the right to judge your own behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, and to take
the responsibility for their initiation and consequences upon yourself.
 You have the right to offer no reasons or excuses for justifying your behaviour.
 You have the right to judge if you are responsible for finding solutions to other people's
problems.
 You have the right to change your mind.
 Use "I" Statements. Use "I want", "I need" or "I feel" to convey basic assertions and
get your point across firmly. For example, "I feel strongly that we need to bring in a
third party to mediate this disagreement."
 Empathy - Always try to recognize and understand how the other person views the
situation. Then, after taking her point of view into consideration, express what you
need from her.
 You have the right to say, "I don't understand."
 You have the right to say, "I don't care.", etc.
The most well-known techniques are: Broken Record Technique and Technique of Open
Door. You will use these two techniques most commonly in everyday life. You can guess
their principle from the name of these techniques: Medzihorský (1991), Piňos (2019)
 Broken Record Technique is based on repeating what you are trying to sit down
on. Stand quietly and persistently repeating what you want to push forward. Without
anger and no arguments. With this approach, you insist on yourself and you can
ignore attempts to manipulate your person.
 Technique of Open Door is different in the approach itself. With this technique,
you accept the criticism to be manipulated. Instead of a negative reaction to criticism,
you admit to the critic that he may be right or that he is partially right. With this, you
disarm the criticism. He waited for great resistance, and instead, you admit that what
he says can be a piece of truth.
 Fogging - Consists of finding some limited truth to agree with in what an antagonist
is saying. More specifically, one can agree in part or agree in principle.
 Art of refuse - Say „no“ without feelings of the quilt. If we cannot say „no“, people
push us where they want tohave us. Then we will do things, that we dont want todo,
and we will not do things that we want to do. The technique of refusal is the mirror
image of theenforcement of competent requirements. We again claim our „no thank
you, I dont want“.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
79
 Free information - I provide free information about myself. Technique teaches us
to talk about without exaggerated shyness.
 Acceptable compromise - Master-hood of assertiveness One of the main purpose
of assertiveness training is the achievement of consent, when both sides gain „their“
values. Especially in contact with people, who arent indifferent to us, it is better to
talk to the bilateral satisfaction, rather than have it our way.
TO REMEMBER
The most well-known techniques are Broken Record Technique and Technique of Open
Door.
According to Alnap (2019), effective communication is the fundamental building block
of participation, and central to designing a strategy for participation. Formal communication
takes place through meetings, focus group discussionsand so on, whilst informal
communication is more opportunistic, for example simply chatting to people whilst you
walk through a community.
 Informal communication - Informal communication is a type of communication
that is not controlled, unlike formal communication, by predetermined rules. The
information is not included in official information channels. Informal communication
channels can be used to communicate informally. The main purpose of informal
communication is to communicate with communicators through a different
communication path than formal communication. Information transmitted in
unofficial communication channels has specific characters:
o Information is more accurate than inaccurate
o Communication is fast.
o Information is treated freer and freer than in official information channels
o Often, channel information is classified as new.
 Formal communication with communities gives an opportunity for leaders and
spokespeople to present information, policy or opinions to the aid agency. Often the
people you communicate with on a formal basis will have some official position or
status within their community (village leader, government official, head of a women’s
group).
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
80
In effective communication you have to seek first to unnderstand, than to understood,
you open doors into the hearts and minds of others. People will know that you are really
care about what they have to say When you understand their needs, you can respond in a
way that builds trust with them.
 Ask an open-ended question and these questions cannot be answered simply yes
or no For example „what needs to change to make this situation better?“, “what do
you mean by that, specifically?” These kind of questions could help you solve problems,
and work more effectively.
 Be open and honest. This technique is just common sence „Honestly is the best
policy.“
 Smile. Is your best tool and your best weapon tolled into one.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication barriers are obstacles in the way of effective communication. If we want
to agree, we need to limit communication barriers. According to Vymětal (2008) by the
term communication barrier we mean the obstacles that have to be overcome during the
communication or which prevent the communication. We can barriers to communication
divided in to: Aydin (2019)
 Tangible Differences
o Gender - Major influence on the way we communicate with others. When
men and women work together in a group, men tend to be more assertive
and self-confident. Women are more likely than men to express their emotions,
to reveal how they feel about a situation.
o Age - oung people and old people communicate in different ways. We do
tend to judge a statement by different standards if we know the speaker’s
age.
o Race
o National or Cultural Origin
o Socioeconomic Class
o Education Level
o Urban or Rural Residence
Communi-
cation
barriers
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
81
 Intangible Differences
o Perception - Our physical limitations are a screen through which we perceive
things that exist in our environment. Our perception is also limited by
psychological screens that we have a developer.
o Motivation - The most strongest motivations are those that are most personal.
We are motivated by money, fame, power, love, status, security, skill,
ambition...etc
o Tunnel Vision - A closed way of thinking, especially about abstract topics,
such as religion and politics. The person with tunnel vision is one who has
firmly fixed ideas. The opposite side is open-mindedness.
o Ego Defensiveness - A response pattern in which a person who follows this
pattern sees a disagreement as a personal attact. A self-centered communication
More than just being selfish
o Negative Emotions - Almost always obstacles to good communication!.
Especially true if the emotion is uncontrolled, unfocused, or misdirected.
Some authors divided barriers to communication too in to:
 Enviromental and psychical barriers
o Time - quicker and speedy channels of communication, communicate with
somebody by the emails or sending letters by post.
o Space - when telefonic communication isn´t very effective. For example
one of them is from India and the orher is from United States. They can send
the details by the email.
o Place - The place shoul be clear and not crowded. Where there is a noice,
there a person cannot effectively communicate.
o Medium - communication takes place in various forms; it is oral, written,
audio, video, formal, informal, the medium used for the purpose of communicating
should be accurate, precise and understandable.
 Semantic barriers
o Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
Language and vocabulary that is used in communication should be understandable
to the persons.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
82
 Cultural barriers
o Cultural differences
o Different nationalities, religions, castes, creeds, races, ethnicities, etc.
 Psychological barreirs
o ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties, pain, etc.
 Perception of reality
o Different levels of percepcion and viewpoint
o Communicating about a particular topic, condition, problem, issue, situation,
dilemma, stress or a concept.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples of tangible and intangible differences in communication.
QUESTIONS
1.) Listening:
a) is communication without words, or body language
b) is the most powerful non-verbal communication channel
c) is a key element of communication and important to entrepreneurs, managers and
employees.
2.) The most well-known techniques are:
a) Fogging and Art of refuse
b) Formal and informal communication
c) Broken Record Technique and Technique of Open Door
3.) Intangible Differences include:
a) Race
b) Motivation
c) National or Cultural Origin
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
83
ANSWERS
1c, 2c, 3b.
OTHER SOURCES
LUDDEN, J. M., 2001. Effective Communication Skills: Essential Skills for Success in
Work and Life. Jist Works. ISBN 978-1563708527.
VYMĚTAL, J., 2008. Průvodce úspěšnou komunikací: Efektivní komunikace v praxi.
Praha: Grada Publishing. ISBN 978-80-247-2614-4.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Communication is the sum of all things that one person does, when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of others. In the communication process, feedback is also important,
which is a response to some information. It tells how the message is received and
understood. the communication process is always between two or more people the monologue
can be considered as a form of preparation for communication with others or for the
expression of alignment with internal contradictions. Effective communication is one of
the most important keys for our success. Essentials skills for effective communication are:
listening, non-verbal communication, confidence, body language, eye contact, always have
an opened mind, give and receive feedback.
Assertive behaviour is one of the important human abilities. Assertiveness is a way of
communication and behaviour, it is a way to promote your opinion, interest. Beware, do
not confuse assertiveness with aggression. The most well-known techniques are: Broken
Record Technique and Technique of Open Door. Effective communication is the fundamental
building block of participation, and central to designing a strategy for participation.
Communication barriers are obstacles in the way of effective communication. If we want
to agree, we need to limit communication barriers. We can barriers to communication divided
in to: tangible and intangible differences. Some authors divided barriers to communication
in to: enviromental and psychical barriers, semantic barriers, cultural barriers, psychological
barreirs and perception of reality.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
84
7 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter about business communication develops practical skills needed for business
mostly in oral skills. The introduction concentrates on division of business communication
with the emphasize on the ways of communication needed for the market.
The following part of the chapter focuses on presentation skills, what to do and how to
prepare appealing presentation for the audience, including signpost language.
The goal of the chapter is to revise telephone skills suitable for a short conversation,
some useful phrases are given.
Some specifics of chosen cultures are discussed to perceive them as an integral part of
the company culture.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To learn the ways of business communication,
 To enhance presentation skills,
 To improve telephone skills,
 To become aware of culture differences in business communication.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Business communication, presentation skills, soft skills, telephone skills, time manage-
ment.
7.1 Business communication
To be successful in today’s globalized market is closely connected with business communication
because of the increasing number of countries participating in, and for the success and
growth of both entrepreneurs and companies, effective and efficient communication is vital,
essential, and crucial. That is why, it is necessary to study not only basic information about
main features of different nationalities and countries in advance but at the same time, to show
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
85
the respect to our partners, to study cultural differences directly from the contact with business
partners, to exploit our own experiences, and last but not least employees who work abroad
bring rules of other countries, different management styles, etiquette, etc. During time skills
not only formal but at the same time informal ones can be obtained and implemented into our
performance with a valued effect appreciated by our partners.
We need to be able to be diplomatic in different types of communication because nowadays
we must communicate with clients, managers, colleagues in multi-national teams,
and others from different backgrounds.
Why is it so important to be prepared for business communication in intercultural surroundings?
It sometimes takes quite a long time to build a trustful partnership, especially
in some cultures (for example in Asian cultures you should be very patient and negotiation
is very long) but it can be damaged easily and breaking some cultural rules could be the
reason. At the same time the proper kind of communication with respect to our partner
should be used – written, oral or both. The most difficult type of communication needed a
lot of experience and practice could be if the information is conveyed non-verbally.
TO REMEMBER
Although the market is globalized, and English has become the language of business, it
cannot lead us to assume that there is only one way how to operate in business.
TYPES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
When communicating with partners, clients, colleagues, employees, etc. we can choose
from communication types in accordance with the situation we are in (it is also dependent
on culture of communicators). Business communication may be of different types – formal,
informal, upward, downward. The most frequent types of business communication are:
 Verbal,
 Written,
 Electronic (online) communication.
Verbal communication is the oldest kind of business communication, and it is still popular.
It is a simple and direct way of communication, but at the same time, you can study
non-verbal communication, which plays even more important role in some cultures (Asian
culture). Verbal communication is chosen when feedback is required immediately, interaction
is needed, messages are simple, it is not necessary to keep a permanent record, and you
can reach your partner easily. This kind of communication includes live meetings, face-toface
meetings, speeches, telephone, video tape, and personal task assignments.
Importance
of
Business
Communi-
cation
Verbal
communi-
cation
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
86
Verbal communication has one negative feature – participants´ presence is needed,
which can be sometimes difficult to arrange.
Written communication is applied if to give clear information without mistakes is
needed, mostly used in legal situations– formal notices, contracts – and if immediate feedback
is not required and permanent record is necessary for future reference. It includes
letters, reports, proposals, memos, posters, contracts, etc.
Electronic communication has become a very popular type of business communication
because it includes the advantages of the mentioned-above methods, what is more it is delivered
faster and it is not dependent on the participants´ location. It includes emails, sharing
documents via Cloud storage, videoconferences, etc.
BENEFITS OF SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Communication is necessary for fruitful partnership and collaboration. The main objective
of communication is to give information and to persuade different people. Business
communication includes giving suggestion, opinion, view, idea, advice, request, instructions,
training, appraisal, etc. The basic purpose of business communication is to bring understanding
between individuals in order to have efficient business.
Benefits of business communication:
 Stronger team,
 Stronger partnerships,
 Better customer relationships,
 Increased productivity,
 Reducing costs thanks to new technologies.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples of different types of business communication and describe them.
7.2 Presentation skills
Giving presentations belongs to everyday business life and therefore it is one of the essential
skills for the people in business. A presentation can be delivered face-to-face to your listener/listeners
or through a videoconference, which is being used very often in business communication.
There are several points when getting ready for a presentation, which can make it easier:
 Preparation is vital,
 Think about the aim of your presentation,
Written
communi-
cation
Electronic
communi-
cation
Presentation
prepa-
ration
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
87
 Prepare the structure of the presentation,
 Think about your audience,
 If it is possible (technical devices are needed) have a PowerPoint presentation with
key points or other supportive material with you,
 Try to deliver with notes only,
 Prepare graphs, charts, illustrations, videos,
 Think about the quality of voice, intonation (listeners expect variety in a speaker´s
voice) and speed of your speech – mainly at the beginning of your presentation when
you can be very nervous but keep the speed during the whole speech because you
want to persuade the listeners, want them to understand the topic, if it is necessary
repeat important matters several times,
 Listen to your audience, respect them and their comments,
 Make eye contact with the listeners,
 Use suitable but not disturbing gestures,
 Include answering questions throughout or at the end of the presentation (coping
with questions explain at the beginning,
 Wear comfortable, neutral, elegant clothes.
TO REMEMBER
Before your presentation think about your listeners from different points of view.
Their culture background should be taken into consideration as well. Sometimes
subject of the presentation is the same but delivering is modified to address the au-
dience.
SOME RULES FOR VISUAL PRESENTATION
If using a visual presentation, prepare the suitable number of slides including an introductory
one and the slides with the overview and summary of the presentation.
Think about the text in each slide – it is only a supportive component of the speech,
better given in points only, too much text can be disturbing because listeners do not have
time for either reading or listening. The text must be readable – font size is important. Too
many colours for fonts are not advisable, too – three are enough. Not all colours can be
seen by your audience.
Everybody is unique, has his/her own style and that makes presentations attractive. The
best way for learning how to deliver a good presentation is to give them – your experience
will help you to build your own style.
Visual pre-
sentation
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
88
TO REMEMBER
 The language of your presentation must be understandable, simple, and easier than
in writing.
 If using terminology, explain it.
 Do not use abstract nouns.
 Stress the important parts.
 Do not forget to use signpost language and use it to divide the presentation in logical
parts.
SIGNPOST LANGUAGE
It is desirable to divide the presentation into several logical parts to give the audience
time to absorb the main points, to think them over and to ask or prepare questions.
The words and phrases that leads both you and your listeners through the speech can help.
Study some examples of signpost language for different parts of presentation:
Introducing the topic – The subject of my presentation is …., I´m going to talk about ....,
I´m going to give you an overview of …. , The focus of today´s presentation is ….,
Overview – I´d like to begin by …., Firstly, …., The presentation today is divided into four
parts ….,
Introducing the first section – I´d like to start/begin by…
Starting a new section – Let´s move on to …., Let´s look at …, Having discussed … I´d
like to move on to ….,
Finishing a section – So much for…, We looked at ….,
Giving an example – To give you an example…., To illustrate this point ….,
Summarizing and concluding – To sum up …., To conclude …., In conclusion …., Finally,
let´s summarize some of the main points.
Invitation to ask questions – Please feel free to ask questions. Would you like to ask questions?
Please do not hesitate to interrupt me if you have any questions.
Finishing and saying goodbye – If there are no further questions, I´d like to thank you
very much for your attention. If you think of any additional questions, please feel free to
contact me.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
89
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find other examples of signpost language and prepare your own list of words and phrases
that you prefer and remember easily.
QUESTIONS
Give a suitable phrase for the following situations:
1 Greet the audience.
2 Introduce yourself.
3 Give the topic of your talk.
4 Explain the overview of your presentation.
5 Explain the audience dealing with questions during a presentation.
6 Say something about the length of your presentation.
7.3 Telephone skills
Using the phone is one way how to reach your business partner if you need fast information,
to confirm a meeting, to postpone a meeting, to discuss flight arrangements, etc. In
this part, you can find the useful phrases for a telephone conversation.
We say …..
 make a call
 call/ phone/ring someone
 give somebody a call/ring
MAKING A CALL: FIRST WORDS
Speaking immediately to a person you want:
Is that Peter? Hello! This is Tom.
Hi Daisy? This is Andrea from Munich.
Phrases
for phone
calls
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
90
How are you doing?
Speaking to a receptionist or a secretary say your name and company:
Good morning, my name is ……
Good afternoon. This is …… from…..
Then you ask for the person you want:
Could I speak to …… , please?
Can I have extension 555, please?
Could you put me through to the Marketing Department, please?
Sometimes the reason for your call is needed:
I´m calling to……
The reason I´m calling is ….
I´d like to speak to someone about ….
I´m calling in connection with ……
RECEIVING A CALL: FIRST WORDS
If you answer a general company phone number, give your own name and company
name:
Good morning, Global International, Tom speaking, how can I help you?
If you answer a direct line inside a company:
Marketing Department, Luisa speaking.
If somebody asks for you by name, you say:
Speaking.
If you must transfer the call, say:
I´ll try his number for you. Hold the line, please.
Just a moment. I´ll put you through.
Please hold. I´ll connect you.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
91
If the person is not available, say:
I´m sorry, he´s in a meeting/ away from the office this week.
Can I take a message?
Would you like to leave a message?
Shall I ask him to call you back?
LEAVING AND TAKING MESSAGES
Can I leave a message?
Could you give him/her a message?
Please ask him/her to ring me …. .
Please tell him/her I called.
Can I take a message?
Would you like to leave a message?
If you give me your number I´ll ask him/her to call you back.
Shall I ask him to call you back?
Can I have your name and number, please?
Sorry, I didn´t catch your name/number.
Sorry, can you repeat your name and number, please.
Could you spell your name, please?
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare your own telephone conversation on business topics.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
92
QUESTIONS
1 Complete the sentences with suitable prepositions:
about, back, through, through, to, to, up.
1 After several tries I finally managed to get ___________ .
2 I´ve been on hold for about 3 minutes, I´m going to hang ________ .
3 I´d like to speak _____ someone ______ your advertising campaign.
4 I´ll put you ______ ______ the manager.
5 Shall I ask her to call you _______ ?
2 Middle or end of the telephone conversation? Put the phrases bellow in the col-
umns:
The middle of the call The end of the call
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
1 So what we agreed so far is ….
2 Thanks for calling.
3 I look forward to hearing from you till the end of the week.
4 I´ll send you an email with all the details.
5 I think that´s all from me.
6 Nice talking to you. Bye.
7 What are the reasons for thinking that?
8 Enjoy your weekend and give my regards to Angela.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
93
3 Put the words in correct order:
1 please more speak could slowly could?
2 I number can your please have?
3 catch sorry name didn´t your I.
7.4 Specifics of chosen cultures
As you know, the way of communication is important for effective and efficient business.
To be successful you must always think about your partner and the most suitable ways
of business communication – to use written or oral way, to meet face-to-face or to choose
videoconference, or to make a phone call, etc. in order to reduce the risk of failure. The
way of communication often reflects the position of the user in his company. Sometimes
written communication and seldom telephone conversation is enough. Some positions include
regular oral communication. To help their employees and to standardize procedures,
some international companies provide their employees with a summary of useful terminology
for their communication with clients and partners.
TO REMEMBER
Listen to your partner carefully and respect him/her. It takes time to build a partnership,
but it can be ruined in a moment.
Our companies closely cooperate with partners from different parts of the world. Some
people prefer using written communication to be able to prepare properly, they are also
afraid of misunderstanding, especially if making a phone call. It needs a lot of practice, you
cannot see other party´s gestures and sometimes pronunciation can influence understanding
as well (French, Asian accent can be strong).
Germans and French are hierarchical cultures you should reach the responsible person.
When talking to British respect their high context culture and their use of formal language.
If giving a presentation in American surroundings it should be well prepared, with concentration
on the main problem. Americans are business-oriented, low context culture. Theyexpect
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
94
professional approach. In different cultures, the length of a presentation can vary, too. For example,
Italians like a long introduction with the company details. When giving a presentation
in Sweden, do not expect lively discussion afterwards. Swedish expect you to prepare the topic
with all the necessary details and that is why no discussion is needed.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 You can choose a way of communication you like best. T/F
2 You can decide if you prefer formal or informal language in business communication.
T/F
3 Giving presentations is a favourite way of business communication. T/F
4 During telephone conversation, can you answer a call: It´s Adam. T/F
5 When talking to Brits it is easy to understand them from the context. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Complete the sentences with suitable prepositions:
1 through, 2 up, 3 to, about, 4 through to, 5 back
2 Middle or end of the telephone conversation?
The middle of the conversation: 1, 4, 7
The end of the conversation: 2, 3, 5, 6, 8
3 Put the words in correct order:
1 Could you speak more slowly, please?
2 Can I have your name, please?
3 Sorry, I didn´t catch your name.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F, 2 F, 3 T, 4 F, 5 F
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
95
OTHER SOURCES
QUINTANILLA, K. M. and S. T. WAHL, 2011. Business and Professional Communication.
Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6472-2.
CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide to International
Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. Second edition. ISBN 978-
0-7494-5274-2.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter focused on business communication, the ways of business communication
and the suitable choice of it for both parties, effective presentation skills with the accent on
some rules how to prepare a presentation, the use of signpost language, the chapter revised
telephone phrases and emphasized some cultures and their specifics in business communi-
cation.
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
96
8 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter concentrates on useful topics of business etiquette needed in everyday life
of a company when dealing with business partners from different countries. It puts an emphasis
on greetings, making introductions, shaking hands, exchanging business cards.
It explains how to lead small talk when meeting people for the first time or repeatedly.
It helps to choose suitable small talk topics in order to start a business meeting in a more
relaxed and friendlier atmosphere.
The chapter focuses on some differences in business etiquette of various cultures in connection
with shaking hands, and exchanging business cards in respect to formality, hierarchy, etc.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To learn greetings,
 To acquire introduction phrases,
 To develop skills in small talk,
 To enhance business etiquette.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Business card, dress code, greetings, introduction, small talk, status.
8.1 Business etiquette
If a company wants to be successful in international business, they should think about
the manners and behaviour in social and business situations. The goal of their effort is to
build a good relationship with their business partners to cooperate profitably. There are
many situations where culture differences occur to be taken into consideration including:
 Making introductions,
 Exchanging business cards,
 Shaking hands,
 Making small talk,
Business
situations
with culture
diffe-
rences
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
97
 Dress code,
 Accepting status and position,
 Keeping the distance,
 Having dinner,
 Giving presents,
 Travelling.
It is not enough to focus on doing business only because your competitors who show
more respect and intercultural sensitivity might be at an advantage.
8.2 Greetings and small talk
A first impression starts from the appearance and the first moments of conversation. It
is practical to know useful phrases.
GREETINGS AND WELCOMING
Greeting people you have not met before:
Excuse me, are you Ms Green? May I introduce myself? My name´s …… .
Nice/Pleased /Glad to meet you.
How was your flight/journey?
Greeting people you have already met:
Formal – Good morning/afternoon, Mr Johnson.
Less formal – Hi/Hey/Hello. Nice to see you again.
Followed by: How are you? or more informal How are you keeping? How are things
with you? How is life?etc..
TO REMEMBER
If you are asked How are you?, do not forget to ask this question your partner. They can
feel confused or even offended.
If the host meets the visitor at the airport/ railway station:
Welcome to the Czech Republic. Let me help you with your suitcase. Did you have a
good journey? Is this your first time in …… ? A taxi is waiting for us. We´ll go straight to
our company.
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
98
If the receptionist welcomes the visitor:
Good morning, I´ll let Mr Novak know you´ve arrived.
Take a seat over there, please.
Can I get you a drink or coffee?
If the host welcomes the visitor at the office:
Come in.
It´s good to see you again.
Let me take your coat.
Have a seat.
Would you like something to drink? Tea or coffee, mineral water? How do you take it –
black or white, with sugar?
How was your journey?
Where are you staying? Is everything fine with your hotel/accommodation?
INTRODUCTIONS
If there are three people and two of them are meeting for the first time, then the third
one will introduce them. He knows how to address the participants because it can vary in
different cultures. Follow the person making the introduction:
Formal – Let me introduce Mr. Johnson to you.
Less formal – Adam, have you met Tom? (I don´t think you have met Tom. or This is
Tom.)
Answer: Nice/Pleased /Glad to meet you.
CHECK QUESTIONS
Match the greetings and the replies.
1 Good afternoon. My name´s is Peter Novak.
2 Hello, Tom. Good to see you again.
3 Excuse me, are you Ms Black?
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
99
4 Hello, Mr Brown. How are you?
5 Have you met Peter?
a I don´t think so.
b I´m fine. And you?
c Hello, pleased to see you too.
d Yes, that´s right.
e Pleased to meet you, Mr Novak.
Put the halves together.
1 Did you have a something to eat?
2 Welcome b our company easily?
3 Is this your first c staying?
4 Where are you d to Karvina.
5 Would you like e to see you again.
6 Did you find f a good flight?
7 It´s nice g time in the Czech Republic?
SMALL TALK TOPICS
When meeting someone even in business you make small talk in most cases. We use
small talk to learn about partner´s personality, interests, job, etc., to build a relaxed atmosphere
and trust.
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
100
DEFINITION OF SMALL TALK
Small talk is an informal, friendly conversation about unimportant subjects, light or casual
conversation (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019).
Small talk topics should be about neutral matters, not very personal. The choice of topics
depends on circumstances you are in – situation, relationship, etc.
If you do not know each other, you can start from introduction. Then you can use some
universal topics: origins, weather, sports, job, interests, food, cuisine, travelling, and
sightseeing.
TO REMEMBER
When talking to someone REALLY LISTEN TO THE ANSWERS. Try to use the information
in the future.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare your own database of small talk questions.
QUESTIONS
Choose the suitable word to complete the sentences:
Can Do Have How Is What Where Who
1 __________you mind if I join?
2 __________this you first time in Prague?
3 __________are you enjoying your stay?
4 __________long are you here for?
5 __________is your job?
6 __________I get you something to drink?
Small talk
topics
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
101
7 __________lovely weather?
8 __________been to Dubai?
9 __________do you work for?
10 _________are you staying?
8.3 Specifics of chosen cultures
Doing business in England stands on traditions and the English are reserved, like the
Americans, they concentrate on business and they respect people´s privacy. The English
are very formal and polite. The English are very formal and polite.
Dress code is important, too. It is advisable to wear elegant clothes in all culture both
for women and for men. The English are very formal and polite.
In Germany, they respect hierarchy and they prefer formal communication. They are
always on time so be punctual or excuse if you are late. When being introduced use titles.
First names can be used only if it is offered.
Shaking hands can differ in various cultures. Americans shake hands firmly so as Germans
who start and finish a meeting from shaking hands with everyone starting with the
most senior person. In Britain, a handshake is light, and you cannot stand too close and
only when meeting for the first time. French people shake hands quickly and slightly with
everybody and anytime. In Turkey, a handshake is not firm, but they hold the hand for a
long time. You can shake hands with the opposite sex in business situations but not in
common ones in Russia. Do not shake hands in Thailand, place your palms together at chest
level and bow and the other person returns this gesture.
In Asia during introduction, the handshake is followed by a bow, without direct eye
contact. The business card exchange is very important. Business cards are given and received
with both hands, studied carefully, it is advisable to make some comments. Because
of the respect to status and position in Asian cultures, business cards are written in detail
and during meetings are visible so that they can be read easily. Do not forget that in Asian
cultures giving and taking face influences the ways of communication and building a relationship
is vital for further cooperation.
Regarding small talk, do not be surprised that Finns do not prefer it, as it is their privacy.
Situation is similar to Scandinavian countries. Sauna plays an important role in socializing
in Finland.
BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
102
CASE STUDY
Read this case study and explain what happened:
A Hungarian woman worked for a German company. She was satisfied with her salary,
which was much higher than in Hungary. However, she did not like her boss who was 4
years younger and never let her in first, never opened the door for her when they appear at
the same time.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 “How are you doing?” is it about our profession? T/F
2 They use titles and surnames in Germany when introducing. T/F
3 Small talk is useless in business conversation. T/F
4 Shaking hands in Thailand is typical. T/F
5 Dress code is an important part of corporate culture. T/F
ANSWERS
Match the greetings and the replies.
1e 2c 3d 4b 5a
Put the halves together.
1f 2d 3g 4c 5a 6b 7e
Choose the suitable word to complete the sentences:
1 Do 2 Is 3 How 4 How 5 What 6 Can 7 What 8 Have 9 Who 10 Where
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1F 2T 3F 4F 5T
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
103
OTHER SOURCES
REYNOLDS, S., and D. VALENTINE, 2011. Guide to Cross-Cultural Communication
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall publishing.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter explained some topics related to business etiquette including introduction,
exchanging business cards, small talk and its importance when doing business internationally.
It also focused on some intercultural differences to be able to avoid unpleasant situations
while meeting business partners from foreign countries.
MEETINGS
104
9 MEETINGS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of the chapter is to enhance students´ skills for leading meetings successfully
because having meetings is one of the efficient and effective tools in business communication
even if the form of meetings is being changed thanks to new information and communication
technologies. This fact has brought new requirements on meeting participants at
the same time.
The chapter explains how to prepare a meeting agenda including recommended items.
Being successful in meetings also involves phrases for opening, closing a meeting, summarizing,
changing a topic, etc.
The last part of the chapter highlights some differences in holding meetings in chosen
cultures.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To learn how to be successful in meetings,
 To introduce the team development model,
 To study how to prepare a meeting agenda,
 To enlarge the database of meeting chairing and leading phrases,
 To become aware of culture differences in meetings.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Agenda, chairperson, discussion, meeting, minutes, report.
9.1 Characteristics of a successful meeting
As mentioned in previous chapters, various methods of business communication are applied
in today´s business world. However, meeting with parties remains an efficient way to
solve problems.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
105
DEFINITION OF MEETING
Meeting is a planned occasion when people come together to discuss something.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/meeting
Nevertheless, due to new ICT the form of meetings is changing, and it is not a problem
to discuss the topic in several countries and several teams at the same time. Companies use
videoconferences, SKYPE business, Webex, etc., which help them with not only meetings,
but also with slide or file sharing and others.
To be efficient in a meeting, it is advisable to obey some rules before, during and after
the meeting. Study some of them:
 Plan the meeting in detail – sometimes more people are needed for its planning,
 Set the goals,
 Prepare meeting agenda,
 Make a list of participants – who can help with solving the problem,
 All pre-work necessary for the meeting must be finished on time (let the participants
know 48 hours before the meeting) – charts, graphs, statistics, plans, reports, etc.
 The meeting leader (chair, chairman, chairwoman) appointed oversees the meeting
and ensures the successful outcomes of the meeting,
 The follow-up plan is created with the list of team members´ tasks and dates to fulfil,
 Send the minutes if agreed,
 Check the results at the beginning of the next meeting.
As mentioned above you need appropriate attendees with the aim to accomplish the goal
of the meeting – solving a problem, improvement of something, creating a new strategy,
etc. It means you need a team, which can cooperate and find solutions. It takes some time
to create a team like this.
BRUCE TUCKMAN’S TEAM DEVELOPMENT MODEL
Bruce Tuckman, a psychology professor, identified five stages of development of a team
in 1965 and Tuckman and Jensen added 5th
stage later:
 Forming – identifying the boundaries of both interpersonal and task behaviours, establishment
of relationships with leaders,
 Storming – and polarization around interpersonal issues, resistance to the influence
of the team,
Rules for a
meeting
MEETINGS
106
 Norming – resistance is overcome, in-group feeling, and cohesiveness develop, new
standards evolve, new roles are adopted,
 Performing – roles become flexible and functional, and the group energy is focused
on the task,
 Adjourning – involves dissolution, finishing roles, completing tasks, and reducing
dependency.
Tuckman says that every team starts from a relatively unproductive stage before becoming
self-reliant one. This model also emphasizes the fact that unless the issues of processes
and feelings have been satisfactorily addressed, it is unlikely that the people will reach the
most productive final stage. According to his findings, any team will change and develop.
This model can be applied with modern virtual teams that use technology to operate
across time and cultural boundaries.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Search for other theories of building a successful team and specify the differences.
QUESTION
What makes a successful meeting?
9.2 Agenda
Each meeting starts from an agenda, which is delivered to participants in advance, nowadays
electronically. It is advisable to send the agenda several days in advance for the participants
to be able to get ready. An agenda for staff can differ from an agenda for a conference
but the aim is the same: to inform meeting attendees about the discussed topics and
to let them to get ready. What should be included in the meeting agenda?
 Date,
 Time,
 Venue (place),
 Participants,
 Items for discussion,
 The amount of time needed,
 Pre-work for the meeting.
Parts of
agenda
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
107
TO REMEMBER
 The agenda should not be too long, for about maximum 5 topics.
 Create your agenda early.
 State the aim/aims.
 Give enough time to each point on the agenda.
 Let everybody know what to prepare and who is responsible for what.
 Do not forget about the time needed for summary.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare an agenda for a meeting on a new advertising campaign and include the points:
 Minutes of previous meeting,
 Date of next meeting,
 Apologies for absence,
 Marketing plan, etc.
9.3 Chairing and leading discussion
The chairperson, who is in charge of the meeting, opens the meeting. Someone might
be asked to take the minutes/Memorandum of Meeting (written summary of the meeting).
If the attendees do not know each other, the meeting begins with their introduction.
The chair also announces who sends apologies. Then everybody is asked to approve the
minutes of the previous meeting if the meeting happened. The next step is the review of the
agenda. The chair sets the time limit, reminds the participants to switch off their mobile
phones, invite them to have some refreshment, etc. All remarks are addressed through the
chair. The chair concludes one point and leads into the next. He/She highlights important
points. The chair looks after the time. The chairperson concludes the contributions, speaks
about achievements, and thanks everybody for coming.
QUESTION
What are the functions of the chairperson?
In what ways is the role of the chairperson different when using Webex without a video?
Where is the difference between: a suggestion, a proposal, a recommendation?
Chairperson´s
du-
ties
MEETINGS
108
Study the useful phrases for chairing and leading discussion:
Opening the meeting
Thank you for coming.
It´s ten o´clock. Let´s start./Let´s go down the business.
I´ve received apologies from….
Any comments on the previous meeting?
Introducing the agenda
You´ve all seen the agenda….
There are two items to discuss.
Our objective is to discuss different ideas…
The purpose of this meeting is….
The reason we are here today is….
Calling on a speaker
I´d like to ask Tom to tell us about….
I know Ann´s prepared …..
What about you?
What is your opinion, Tom?
Controlling the meeting
Sorry Tom, can we let Peter finish?
Ann, we can´t talk about that now.
Can I just finish my point?
Perhaps we can come back to this later?
Changing the topic
Right/So. Now what about…?
Shall we move on to discuss….?
Summarizing
So, what you´re saying is ….
Can I summarise that? You mean …. .
The main point is …..
Finishing the meeting
I think we´ve covered everything.
We´ve decided ….
I think we should end there. Just to summarize….
I think we can close today´s meeting.
So, before the next meeting I´m going to …. and you´re going to ….
We will meet again next week at…..
I will look forward to hearing from you …
It´s been a pleasure to see you today and I look forward to our next meeting scheduled on ….
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
109
Other useful phrases for giving opinion
I think/ I feel/ I´d say ….
From my point of view, …
In my view ….
As far as I´m concerned ….
It seems to me ….
Agreeing and disagreeing
That´s right./ That´s true. / Absolutely./ Exactly.
Good point./ Yes, I agree. / Yes, a good idea.
That´s true, but ….
Yes, you have a point, but ….
I can see what you´re saying, but ….
I´m not sure about that.
That´s not really how I see it.
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 Complete the phrases with the correct prepositions:
1 put your phone _____ silent mode
2 have a break _____ refreshments
3 deal _____ some important topics
4 discuss the topic ______ detail
5 run ______ time and finish later
2 Choose the correct word
1 OK. Let´s get started/make it start.
2 The object/purpose of the meeting is to discuss the market research results.
3 From/In my point of view it would be better to….
4 Yes, you have reason/you´re right.
5 Can we come back/come back to this point later?
6 I agree/I´m agree with you.
3 Prepare your own ideas how to perform the following functions in a meeting
Thank people for coming.
Start the meeting on time.
State the objective.
Change the agenda.
Make people stick to the topic.
Give a personal opinion.
Ask for comments.
Close a meeting.
MEETINGS
110
MINUTES
In some companies, there are used meeting minutes. It is a written report about important
points that were discussed. They are to inform the interested people including the participants
of the meeting especially about the decisions made and the planned steps to be done.
There are some points included in the meeting minutes:
 Date and time of the meeting,
 Attendees and excused,
 Decisions made about each item on the agenda,
 New meeting date and time.
The minutes are usually sent by email to the relevant people. Sometimes other possibilities
are applied – the Cloud and others.
TASK TO BE CONSIDERED
Study the minutes of the international meeting online and describe the main points:
Date: 15 March 2019
Present: Bramster: Krzysztof D., Zbigniew W., RW-PL: Mariusz S., Malgorzata P.,
GSP: Jan A., Lapinus: Stefan H., Maurice P., Har M.
Discussed the total orderflow, goal was to skip steps or make the process less complex
and more efficient
The total chain now consits out of 16 steps. After some good discussions, we were able
to skip some steps already now and probably even more (but first some things have to be
checked).
To do’s
 Waste handling: with how much waste do we have to calculate for the 2 materials
Mariusz/Malgorzata
 Can we send the waste back to CIG? Mariusz
 Make a monthly waste report. Krzysztof
 Adapt freigt calculator and add elements to it (steel: 10 elements/pallet; 40 elements
is 2,1 lm and wood 26 elements is 2,1 lm) Jan
 Create excel sheet incl material numbers for lead times Har
 Add lead times to the attached excel sheet Krzysztof
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
111
 Is it possible that CIG (transport planning) can arrange the transport from Bramster?
Mariusz
 Can we skip the loading list and use only the PO, and use then the PO to create the
delivery note? Mariusz/Malgorzata
 When can the signed delivery note be sent, still 1 day before loading or earlier?
Mariusz/Malgorzata
Decided:
 Orders from now on will be booked on req del date instead of loading date
 RW-PL send documents in 1 email, both to Lapinus and Bramster
 Bramster send the signed documents to RW-PL and in copy Lapinus
The meeting ended with a factory tour.
The new “process” could then be as follows:
 Lapinus book order and sent email to RW-PL
 RW-PL generate PO
 RW PL checks if it is possible to release order (remove checkmarks) + send confirmation
to Warehousing?
 RW-PL sent PO directly to Bramster with copy to Lapinus
 RW PL arrange transport?
 Bramster sent signed PO (instead of loading list) to RW PL with copy to Lapinus
 Can maybe be done more than one day in advance?
 RW PL makes MIGO, creates IC invoice and send delivery note (only delivery
note!) to Bramster with copy to Lapinus
We want to thank all of you for the good cooperation and constructive meeting.
9.4 Specifics of chosen cultures
Today in an international environment, it is not easy to arrange and lead a meeting with
positive outcomes not only because of different opinions but also because of cultural differences
(time, habits, leadership, etc.). It can be complicated to set up a regular time because
of different time zones if meeting online, because of language difficulties. That is
why the preparation of the meeting is crucial – and is expected with Germans, Danes, Dutch
but for example British, Italians, Greek, Spanish think that what is said in a meeting is more
important. For Greeks and Italians participants written on the agenda are not so valid, somebody
else could appear. Punctuality can be a source of misunderstanding, too (Turkish).
French, Belgians, Spanish will expect strong control of a chair over the agenda and the
discussion.
MEETINGS
112
The Germans will have well-prepared contribution and they expect not be interrupted.
French contributions need logical approach prepared by a team of specialists but can be a
little late for a meeting. The Italians are innovative, complex, and creative and a family
model influences their business environment. The British are pragmatic and realistic. The
Spanish tend not to risk embarrassment, they do not want to be criticized.
It must be stated that much European business education is modelled on American theories
and teaching methods because their way was the most successful. Nevertheless, there
are still big differences in an approach to business. The Americans concentrate on business,
they expect professionalism and competence. Their communication is direct and assertive.
They expect everybody to work long hours as they do. Their meetings are prepared and if
it is needed they have the best team of experts with them. When meeting someone from
different background you should try to study their differences with the aim not to be surprised
and to let the meeting go smoothly with satisfactory results for both parties.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Meeting agenda is prepared in advance and send to attendees. T/F
2 Venue of a meeting is about participants. T/F
3 It is necessary to send meeting minutes to each participant. T/F
4 The chair concludes each point of the discussion and the meeting as well.
T/F
5 Interrupting in meetings belongs to relaxed atmosphere. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Complete the phrases with the correct prepositions:
1 into 2 for 3 with 4 in 5 over
2 Choose the correct word
1 get started 2 purpose 3 From 4 you´re right 5 come back to 6 I agree
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 T 2 F 3 F 4 T 5 F
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
113
OTHER SOURCES
TUCKMAN, B.W. 1965, „Development Sequence in Small Groups “, Psychological
Bulletin 63.
CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide to International
Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. Second edition. ISBN 978-
0-7494-5274-2.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter emphasized the most important points of a successful and efficient meeting.
It taught how to create an agenda, it explained the role of a chair of a meeting. It teaches
useful phrases used in meetings. The chapter concludes with some remarks about cultural
differences.
NEGOTIATIONS
114
10 NEGOTIATIONS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter is about efficiency in negotiations, which is needed every day not only in
business but in everyday situations as well. The chapter introduces types and stages of negotiations
and other segments of negotiating with the aim to help the students to understand
the topic to be able to succeed.
The chapter also includes some phrases needed in different parts of negotiations to be
possibly used for creating students´ own database of negotiation terminology.
The last part of the chapter emphasizes the cultural differences to have in mind before
and during negotiations because showing respect to the partners in negotiating and to their
culture values and habits can play more important role than the offer you have brought with
you.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To learn about types of negotiations,
 To know about stages of negotiations,
 To study how to be effective in negotiations,
 To enlarge the database of negotiation phrases,
 To become aware of some culture differences in negotiations.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Argument, goal, need, negotiations, offer, skill, strategy.
10.1Types of negotiations
When doing business, people negotiate all the time. The aim is to reach agreement or
compromise with positive outcomes for all parties and to avoid conflict at the same time.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
115
The form of negotiations can be various, mainly because of technologies. However, meeting
face-to-face still plays an important role in today´s globalized market. This type of
negotiations is preferred at the beginning of cooperation or when serious problems, which
need to be explained in detail, occurred.
What is negotiation?
DEFINITION OF NEGOTIATIONS
Negotiation (also negotiations) is discussion aimed at reaching an agreement.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/negotiation
The purpose of negotiations can be as follows:
 Exploratory – the parties discuss possible areas of interest,
 Conciliatory – the parties try to resolve differences,
 Work towards a contract.
According to the outcomes, the following types of negotiations are defined:
 Distributive – when the outcomes are satisfactory only for one party, this type is also
called win-lose and future cooperation is not expected,
 Integrative – all parties cooperate with the aim to gain maximal benefits and include
their interests at the same time, they try to find alternatives and reach mutually acceptable
decision. This type is called win-win, an agreement-based negotiation. We
hope in future cooperation.
10.2 Stages of negotiations
The process of negotiations can be divided into several parts:
1 Preparation,
2 Relationship building,
3 Discussion,
4 Clarification of goals,
5 Agreeing procedure,
6 Options,
Purpose of
negotiati-
ons
NEGOTIATIONS
116
7 Bidding,
8 Bargaining,
9 Concluding.
Preparation includes decisions on where and when negotiations will take place to negotiate
the topic, who will attend, how long it will take. You have to identify your minimum
requirements, decide what concessions you could make, know your strengths and weaknesses,
know your role in a team, and prepare any figures, calculations and support mate-
rials.
QUESTION
Decide how the negotiations could be more successful.
Relationship building helps the negotiations go smoothly in more relaxed atmos-
phere.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find suitable phrases for the following situations at the start of a negotiation:
4. Welcome the other side.
5. Have small talk.
6. Inform about plans for lunch.
7. Introduce your colleagues.
8. Explain general aim or purpose of the meeting.
9. Explain what your side wants from the meeting.
Discussion is about explaining how they see the case. Questioning, listening and clarifying
are very important at this stage.
Options giving is about brainstorming the ideas without evaluating them.
Bidding is the most important part of each negotiations with bargaining further offers
that are connected to certain conditions.
Concluding what has been said with win-win outcome as the best result when both
parties feel they have gained something positive.
Preparation
of
negotiati-
ons
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
117
HOW TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN NEGOTIATIONS
The success is affected by several components:
 Attitudes to the negotiations by both parties,
 Knowledge – getting ready is essential, the more you are prepared the more you can get,
 Interpersonal skills – not everybody can be a good negotiator, with time you become
more experienced. Interpersonal skills include effective verbal communication,
listening, and the ability to reduce misunderstanding, being polite, effective
problem solving, and techniques of making decisions, assertiveness, and ability to
deal with difficult situations.
PHRASES FOR NEGOTIATIONS
I´m sure we will have a useful and productive meeting…..
I´d like to begin with a few words about our general expectations ….
May I outline our principal aims and objectives today ….
We have a formal agenda …..
There are three specific areas we would like to discuss. These are….
We have to decide ….
It is important for both of us that we agreed on ….
Handing over:
I´d like to finish there and give you the opportunity to reply to this.
I´d like to hand over to my colleague …., who has something to say about ….
Bargaining:
We can agree to that if ….
That is not acceptable if ….
Making concessions:
If you could … we could consider ….
On condition that we agree on … then we could …
We could offer you ….
Would you be interested in …?
NEGOTIATIONS
118
Accepting:
We agree.
That seems acceptable.
Confirming:
Can we run through what we´ve agreed?
I´d like to confirm what we´ve said.
Summarizing:
I´d like to sum up the main points that we´ve talked about.
So, I´ll summarize the important points of our offer.
Can we summarize the proposals?
Dealing with conflict:
I think we should look at the points we agree on …
We should focus on the positive aspects ….
We should look at the benefits for both sides….
We hope you can see our point of view ….
Let us explain our position ….
Could you tell us why you feel like that?
I think we need to consider some new ideas ….
Rejecting:
I´m afraid we can´t ….
Before agreeing to that we would need …
Unfortunately, ….
I don´t think it would be acceptable for us …..
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
119
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find more examples of negotiation phrases.
QUESTIONS
Choose the correct options
1 It´s ok with us so long as/ whereas you can supply the components by March.
2 If / Unless the specifications are right we´ll be happy.
3 We won´t accept that price if / unless you increase the quantity.
4 We can offer a discount but only / however if you pay at the time of the order.
5 We can agree on that unless / on condition that the price is fixed for a year.
Rejection or agreement. Mark with an R or an A.
1 Unfortunately …. ____
2 We regret that …. ____
3 We´re pleased to say …. ____
4 Fortunately …. _____
5 I´m afraid ….. _____
6 Happily …. _____
7 It´s possible that …. _____
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Think of any kind of negotiations that you may be involved in at work with colleagues
or with another company. Prepare your strategy using the questions bellow:
 How do you need to prepare for the negotiations?
 What is your objective in the negotiations?
NEGOTIATIONS
120
 Supposing you will not get everything you want, what is your best realistic alterna-
tive?
 What is the level at which you could realistically settle?
10.3 Specifics of chosen cultures
When talking about negotiations with a partner from the different culture background,
in some companies it has become everyday routine. The thing is that the further our partner
is the more complicated negotiations can be. To be able to succeed needs a lot of practice,
includes lifelong learning and willingness to understand our partners. There is also a difference
in everyday communication and building a new relationship with a potential client.
What can be affected by culture:
 Interests,
 Priorities,
 Strategies.
There is still one important feature to be mentioned – body language. In some cultures,
to understand non-verbal behaviour is vital for negotiations (Japan).
Building mutual relationship is in some cultures where business is personal more important
than making a deal. In some countries, making small talk is not so important in
meetings but after them (for example in Finland you are going to be invited to sauna after
negotiations).
Be also aware of the fact that in some countries with given status cultures you have to
be very careful when choosing the people for your team (sometimes CEO is expected as a
partner for negotiating). You can be surprised when Americans, Australian or Dutch in
negotiations are very young. It is because of their acquired status culture.
Another feature that should be respected is if your partners are from group-oriented culture
(Japan, China, Arabic countries) or an individualist one (USA, Germany, and Britain).
Japanese culture is highly group-oriented and you cannot expect making decisions during
negotiations, everything is decided during consultation process called “nemawashi”.
“Keeping face” is another feature in Asian cultures and “No” is not the correct answer.
Do not forget about exchanging business cards and other details included in business
etiquette, especially about cultural differences mentioned in previous chapters.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
121
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Everyone present at the negotiations makes an opening statement. T/F
2 Not all negotiations have a formal agenda. T/F
3 Decide realistic maximum and minimum acceptable scores before the negotiations.
T/F
4 Conciliatory negotiations end with an agreement. T/F
5 You should be fair and cooperative, even during difficult bargaining. T/F
OTHER SOURCES
HARKIOLAKIS, N. and D. HALKIAS, 2012. E-Negotiations. Networking and crosscultural
business transactions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-131-7143-772.
VARNER, I. and L. BEAMER, 2010. Intercultural communication in global business.
5th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0073377742.
MOLE, J., 2003. Mind your manners. Managing business cultures in the new global
Europe. London: N. Brealey Publishing. 3rd
edition. ISBN 1-85788-314-4.
ANSWERS
Choose the correct options
1 so long as 2 If 3 unless 4 but only 5 on condition that
Rejection or agreement. Mark with an R or an A.
1 R 2 R 3 A 4 A 5 R 6 R 7 A
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F 2 T 3 T 4 F 5 F
NEGOTIATIONS
122
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter dealt with negotiations, their types, and different stages. It helped with some
facts important for satisfactory negotiations. The chapter also introduced some useful
phrases for various parts of negotiations. Some cultural differences in negotiating conclude
the chapter.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
123
11 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS,
COMPLAINTS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter deals with skills in written communication as an important part of business
communication, which starts from the application process before entering a company. The
chapter explains how to create a cover letter and write a CV.
The following part practise writing emails including common phrases in emails and it
concentrates on writing reports.
The chapter also focuses on dealing with complaints to ensure satisfied customers.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To create a cover letter,
 To write a CV,
 To practice writing emails,
 To learn about reports,
 To understand how to handle complaints.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
CV, complaint, cover letter, email, report, vacancy
11.1 Applying for a job
Each successful career in a company starts with an application procedure. Applicants
search for a position they are interested in and which can match their acquired education,
skills, knowledge and experience. Most people search for the vacancies on the Internet but
being recommended by a family and friends is still an efficient way for finding a dream
job. Social media play an active role in looking for a job as well. Nowadays a very popular
form of searching a suitable candidate for companies and a vacancy for applicants is
LinkedIn, social network for registered professionals where you create your career profile
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS
124
and those who are addressed can contact you. It is advisable to create your profile, especially
if looking for a job or thinking about a new career.
Nowadays, companies have started to apply a new type of pre-selecting future employees
by chatbots. This is a special programme, which can help applicants with administrative
tasks collecting information about their experience, skills, knowledge and answering candidate´s
questions about the vacancy or the company. Thanks to this programme, a Human
resources department can focus on qualified candidates.
Another type of the recruitment procedure is to ask applicants to prepare a short video
about themselves or to have the first contact by phone or via SKYPE. It saves time because
the first impression is important or you can check candidate´s English knowledge, etc. without
meeting them in person.
When applying for a job it is important to study the requirements very carefully. Some
companies ask the applicants for their CV or resumé only but others prefer to have a
cover/covering letter and an application form to be attached, too.
COVER LETTER
It is a short letter, which explains why you are the right person for the advertised position,
that your skills and knowledge join the requirements perfectly.
TO REMEMBER
Think about your cover letter carefully because it is the first message to your future
employer. Do not forget to tailor it to the specific position you are applying for.
What should be included in a cover letter?
 Statement why you are applying for this advertised position,
I am writing to apply for the position of …. advertised on your website/ in …. .
 Introduce yourself, referring to your experience,
I have been working …… for six years…. I have gained wide experience in …. I
believe I am the right candidate for the job.
 Describe why you are the right person for this vacancy using the keywords from the
advert,
I perform well in ….., am a good team player.
 Give your availability.
I am available for interview …..
Types of
job appli-
cation
Parts of
cover let-
ter
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
125
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 Choose the correct options:
1 Your skills/experience refers to your abilities – things you can do well – using a
particular piece of software, speaking a foreign language, being a team player.
2 Your skills/experience refers to your knowledge you get by practicing a particular
job or activity.
3 A/an applicant/candidate is anybody who sent a CV in response to a job advertise-
ment.
4 A/an applicant/candidate is somebody who is being considered for the job.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Search for a vacancy you are interested in and write your cover letter.
CV
DEFINITION OF CV
CV is:
A brief account of person´s education, qualifications, and previous occupations, typically
sent with a job application.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cv
“CV” is used in Europe and “resume” in the USA. When preparing and writing your CV
follow the instructions given in the advertisement. The European Union to ensure transparency
of qualification and mobility of citizens in Europe started Europass, which includes
five documents:
 CV,
 Language passport,
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS
126
 Europass mobility,
 Certificate supplement,
 Diploma supplement.
Thanks to the website Europass web portal, you can create your CV online. Some companies
prefer this type of CV and it is written in their requirements. It makes the recruitment
procedure faster. If it is not given, it is on your decision to use it or not.
What is included in a CV?
 Name, professional title, contact details,
 Personal profile – or personal statement with your career objective and professional
profile – say who you are, explain your career objective and what you can give to
the company.
 Experience and job history,
 Education and qualifications,
 Additional sections: key skills (technical skills, people skills, language skills, etc.),
interest and hobbies, which are relevant to the job.
TO REMEMBER
Focus on your achievements rather than personal qualities that cannot be proved.
CHECK QUESTIONS
2 Complete the sentences with the words below:
Experience position updated vacancy
1 The word ………… is a formal way of saying “job”.
2 The word …………. means “a job that is available”.
3 Employers always want people with a lot of ………….
4 I´ve …………. My CV. Can you read it and give me some feedback?
Parts of
CV
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
127
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare your own CV with the core information ready to be updated when it is
needed.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Some companies use a job application form. Search for the details, what is included
and why it is applied.
11.2 Writing emails
As mentioned above, the most popular form of business communication is tightly connected
with writing emails. This way of communication is popular with all kinds of business
because it is fast, economic, efficient. Emails are written and received every day from
different reasons. Writing emails is used not only for sending short messages concerning
the being solved problem but a lot of documents are sent online including agendas, minutes,
reports, invoices, advertisements, job applications, etc. Even agreements are sent for partner´s
approval in advance by email and in case they agree, only the last page with signature
is delivered to partners by post or courier.
To make emails effective needs good preparation to be able to use only brief and relevant
information. There is also the other negative side of writing emails. Sometimes people receive so
manyemails that theydo not have enough time for reading them. If you write an important email,
it is advisable to inform the addressee by phone or to ask them to confirm the delivery.
SUBJECT
The subject of the email should be a short and clear summary of it. This is important for
attracting addressee´s attention and for looking up old emails in the folders.
EMAIL OPENING
In business, people usually write emails in a neutral style, which is simple, direct, brief
and friendly. There is also a more formal style that is polite with longer, standard expressions.
This style is used if you want to make a good impression or you want to ask a favour.
If it is a neutral email start with Hi/Hello + first name. It depends on your relationship
to your partner. Formal emails start with Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms + family name.
Email sub-
ject
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS
128
INTRODUCING THE SUBJECT
The next part is the reason for writing.
Thank you for your email ….. .
Regarding our last conversation …… .
I´m writing about ….. .
I want to let you know …. .
BODY OF EMAIL
Asking for information:
Could you …..
Please send me ….. .
I´d like to know …. .
Asking for help:
Could you …. ?
Do you think you could ….. ?
Attach a document:
Please, find attached ….
Suggest action:
Let me know if ….. .
How about …. ?
Perhaps you could ….
CLOSING
Best wishes.
Kind regards.
Please get back to me….
If you need any help, let me know.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
129
TO REMEMBER
Formal emails do not use contractions, use longer words with a Latin origin, and use
indirect questions.
CHECK QUESTIONS
3 Formal or neutral:
1 A Thank you for your email of 15 April.
1 B Thanks for the email.
2 A Just a note to say….
2 B I am writing to let you know that….
3 A If you need anything else, just let me know.
3 B If you require any further information, do not hesitate to contact me.
4 A Thanks for your help.
4 B I appreciate your help.
5 A I look forward to hearing from you.
5 B I´m looking forward to hearing from you.
4 Choose the most suitable option:
Hello, Tom.
I´m writing to you 1 affecting/connecting/concerning the meeting that we 2 appointed/
arranged/decide for this Wednesday. I´m sorry but I won´t be able to make it. I have to
leave for Brussels. Can 3 we cancel/postpone/schedule the meeting until next week? I am
free any time Tuesday or Thursday.
I do apologize for any 4 advantage/inconvenience/unfortunate this may cause, and I´m
5 anticipating /looking forward/ waiting to 6 hear/hearing/listen from you.
BR
Anna
11.3 Reports
Writing business reports is one of the skills needed for successful communication in the
business environment. Business reports are applied in companies to provide an overview
about a certain situation, task, and performance, etc. with the aim to inform its readers
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS
130
(supervisor, CEO, controllers, team leader and others) and in some cases to give possible
suggestions for improvement with outcomes beneficial for an organization. Moreover, reports
give an organization valuable information for planning its future steps in manage-
ment.
When writing a report, the audience, the purpose, the main message, and the structure
need to be considered.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Revise your vocabulary for describing trends.
11.4 Complaints
The aim of each business is a satisfied customer but we also need customers who complain
to have customer feedback. The reason for having dissatisfied clients is that they inform
you about the problem because most of dissatisfied customers leave without warning.
Complaints are the best opportunities for improving the product or service.
If a customer is complaining, you need to listen carefully to him/her and to do the best
to understand the problem. Then you must apologize and promise to resolve the complaint.
The next step is finding a solution and a follow-up contact is recommended.
Dealing with complaints is done via letters, mostly emails, blogs, social media, face-toface,
by phone. It needs a lot of tact and careful choice of expressions. Writing a letter of
complaint is still very important because of records for legal matters.
HANDLING COMPLAINTS
There are some phrases for handling complaints:
After investigating your complaint, we have realized that an error was made in our
….department.
We very much regret having given you cause for complaint.
Steps are being taken immediately to ensure that such mistakes do not occur in future.
Please accept our sincere/deepest apologies for this delay and the trouble it has caused.
Please allow me to apologize for ….
Your claim has been passed on to ….. who will get in touch with you soon.
Handling
complaints
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
131
We are deeply sorry that …
I am afraid we are not able to ….
If you have any further questions, do not hesitate to contact us.
If you have any other questions, feel free to contact us.
TO REMEMBER
When structuring a letter or an email of apology try to apply the SPASS model = situation
– problem – action – say sorry.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
5 Put the parts of an email of apology into the correct order:
1 We expect that from the upcoming week an interference free operational sequence will
once again be in place. We apologize once again and promise to maintain the high level of
performance you have come to expect from us in the future.
2 Yours sincerely,
3 Ms. Green
4 Dear Mr. Brown,
5 Thank you for your email dated March 15, 2019. We would like to formally apologize
for any delays to your shipments which have occurred since the start-up of our new loading
system in Berlin.
6 We ask you to excuse these delays. As part of attempts to help you during this period,
we have asked that a hotline is set up to give you up-to-date information on any potential
disruptions. If required, we will also provide an extra truck delivery per day at no further
expense.
7 Operational delays are occurring which are then being compounded by the roll-out of
new delivery schedules. Customs has also had to adapt to the new situation, which is currently
set up only for part of the new system.
SPASS
model
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – CV, EMAILS, REPORTS, COMPLAINTS
132
CHECK QUESTIONS
6 Find and correct the mistakes:
1 Do you think you would send me some informations about delivery conditions? I´m
wondering how can we insure the products to be delivered soon. We need the goods until
the end of the week.
2 Thank you for invite me to the conference. Would you mind to send me the directions
to the conference hall? Thank you. I look forward to see you.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 I can prepare my cover letter and CV in advance and send them without tailoring.
T/F
2 Chatbot is a programme which helps only to answer candidate´s questions about the
company. T/F
3 Europass CV is the standardized CV used by the countries from the EU.
T/F
4 Writing emails is the most popular way of business communication.
T/F
5 Customer complaints are good feedback for the companies. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Choose the correct options:
1 skills 2 experience 3 an applicant 4 a candidate
2 Complete the sentences with the words below:
1 position 2 vacancy 3 experience 4 updated
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
133
3 Formal or neutral:
1A F, 1B N, 2A N, 2B F, 3A N, 3B F, 4A N, 4B F, 5A F, 5B N
4 Choose the most suitable option:
1 concerning 2 arranged 3 postpone 4 inconvenience 5 looking forward 6 hearing
5 Put the parts of an email of apology into the correct order:
4, 5,7,1,2,3
6 Find and correct the mistakes:
1 Do you think you could send me some information about delivery conditions? I´m
wondering how we can insure the products to be delivered soon. We need the goods by the
end of the week.
2 Thank you for inviting me to the conference. Would you mind sending me the directions
to the conference hall? Thank you. I look forward to seeing you.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F 2 F 3 T 4 T 5 T
OTHER SOURCES
CANAVOR, N. 2019. Business writing today: A practical guide. London: Sage. 3rd
edition. ISBN 978-15-063-8832-8.
ROMAN, K. and J. RAPHAELSON, 2000. Writing that works. How to communicate
effectively in business. London: Harper Collins Publishers. 3rd edition. ISBN 978-00-609-
5643-1.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter was about written communication in business, it practised creating a cover
letter and CV, writing emails and reports. It helped with handling complaints to ensure
customer satisfaction.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUESTIONNAIRE
134
12 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUE-
STIONNAIRE
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces some other writing skills needed in international business environment
that is being influenced by globalization.
The part about advertising explains the difference between international and global advertising
and their advantages and disadvantages. The companies choose the best strategies
for their businesses and brands.
The interest in a career in an international company starts from a job advertisement. Our
students can meet job advertising from both sides. The chapter presents what is included in
a job advertisement.
The chapter focuses on questionnaire as a method of obtaining feedback from customers
to provide them with the best product or service.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
 To learn about international advertising,
 To differentiate global advertising,
 To be able to explain brand and brand awareness,
 To understand job advertising,
 To study how to create a questionnaire.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Advertisement, billboard, brand, brand awareness, questionnaire.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
135
12.1 Advertising
What is international advertising?
It can be described as a part of advertising and international marketing, which studies
the similarities and differences in advertising among different nations. International advertising
also studies how one nation´s advertising can affect the other countries. Companies
try to inform target groups in different countries about themselves and their product or
service.
What is the difference in global and international advertising?
Because of globalization, companies need to maintain their advertising globally as well.
Their approach and strategy to advertising can be divided into:
 Global advertising – the same general message is used in all countries,
 International advertising – the message is modified to each country.
Each of the approaches has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of global advertising can be:
 Costs savings, which is especially important for smaller companies,
 Brand reinforcing with the same campaign in each country,
 Word-of- mouth is more effective.
Disadvantages of global advertising:
 Different social acceptance,
 Limits for product uses in each country,
 Poor translation can be a problem – in adverts informal language is used,
 Different cultural context,
 Cultural barriers – different sense of humour, even English-speaking countries cannot
understand,
 Different type of advertising effectiveness in different countries,
 Differences in cultural context – high context cultures – image, personal networks,
low context culture – verbal message.
Advantage of international advertising can be:
 Higher impact in each country.
Global ad-
vertising
International
adver-
tising
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUESTIONNAIRE
136
Disadvantages of international advertising:
 Cost – new campaigns have to created,
 Inconsistency.
Branding also plays an important role in globalization. Companies have to answer the
question of building a global brand or not.
TASK TO BE CONSIDERED
1 Advertising terminology – put the words and definitions together:
1 advertisement 2 advertising 3 billboard 4 brand 5 brand awareness 6 product
placement 7 viral marketing 8 word-of-mouth advertising
A occurs when customers tell other people about a product or service because they like
it
B is a public announcement about sth created to make people to purchase it
C occurs when a company spends money on the using their product in a film or TV.
D occurs when a company creates sth and encourages people to pass the message to
others on the Internet, for example by email
E the business of trying to persuade people to buy a product or service
F degree of consumer recognition of a product by its name
G the name given to a product
H a large outdoor sign used in advertising.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Could you name some brands with high brand awareness?
What are some popular logos?
Are you the customer with brand loyalty, which brands do you have loyalty to and why?
Branding
Advertising
termi-
nology
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
137
12.2 Job advertising
A way how to attract a potential candidate and future employee is to prepare the advertisement
that will give them enough information about the position and is posted in the
most relevant places. In the past, a sign “help wanted” was the only possibility how to do
it. Then an advertisement in a newspaper appeared. Nowadays with the Internet arrival,
more and more companies use the advantages of online advertising. They can choose to:
 Place an advert on a company website,
 Pay for a radio advert,
 Pay for an advert to a job aggregator,
 Pay for a recruitment agency,
 Use social networks, etc.
 Place an advert on LinkedIn, or search it for suitable candidates,
There is still a form, which has not been mentioned, companies usually start their searching
internally. They also choose several options for the recruitment procedure at the same
time.
JOB ADVERTISEMENT
How to write a good job advertisement?
 Make a good first impression,
 Job advert should be easily found,
 Use a simple language, it should be clear, brief,
 Give a summary of the position,
 Explain what experience, knowledge, skills and qualifications are needed,
 Choose an appropriate platform for placing the advert,
 Think about advert design.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
1 Have you ever searched for a job? What kind of job advertising did you use?
2 Create a job advert.
Online ad-
vertising
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUESTIONNAIRE
138
A job advert usually contains:
 The job title,
 Location,
 A job description,
 Qualification needed,
 Remuneration,
 Further details.
In the previous chapter about applying for a job, the use of a video job application is mentioned.
We want to emphasize that some companies choose a video for their own presentation
posted on a corporate website or social media to inform about company itself or other
important moments. It is also an important source of information for a job seeker. Job seekers
appreciate a corporate video as a good way of introduction a company with real people
who are not anonymous any more.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find some job advertisements and describe them.
12.3 Questionnaire
As mentioned above a satisfied customer who repeats business is a goal of corporate
effort. To know if the customers are happy we can learn from them asking them for feedback
and getting them to suggest how you could improve your services or even discover
what you are particularly good at. One of the possibilities how to do it is to apply a questionnaire.
Business questionnaire can be applied to various types of information needed for
the corporate development, it can be used for market research, product or services assessment,
and other purposes with the goal of improvement.
Once you have decided that a questionnaire is the method you want to use to gather data,
the content or topics it will include must be considered. Then some steps before creating a
questionnaire are needed:
 Define the terms,
 Select the information needs or hypotheses,
 Make sure you can get the information,
 Do not ask for information unless you can act on it,
 Target group,
 Writing questions.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
139
When forming questions, you need to decide between open-ended and closed questions,
sometimes you can decide to apply multiple-choice questions because they are efficient.
Choose open-ended questions when you want to give the respondents the opportunity to express
opinions in their own words and you have the interest in and resources to interpret the
findings. Open-ended questions are easier to create. Apply closed questions for their relative
ease of scoring, analysis, and interpretation. It is more challenging to create them because you
need respondents to understand them in the same way to obtain relevant answers.
The first question should be connected to survey´s purpose, objective questions come before
subjective ones, and relatively easy questions are put at the end. Questions should proceed from
the most familiar to the least. Place questions logically. You can apply a pilot test.
A typical conclusion to survey´s activities is a written report of its purposes, methods,
results, conclusions, and recommendations. A survey report could be structured as follows:
 Purposes or objectives,
 Research Design,
 Methods,
 Respondents,
 List of tables and figures,
 Outcomes,
 Results,
 Conclusion,
 Recommendations,
 References.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find some examples of business questionnaires. Have you ever prepared a business
questionnaire? Are you going to apply a questionnaire for your bachelor´s thesis?
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Global advertising is a corporate strategy which is same for all countries.
T/F
2 Cultural context does not influence global advertising. T/F
3 Brand awareness is important in doing business. T/F
Questi-
onnaire
creation
Questionnaire
re-
port
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – ADVERTISING, QUESTIONNAIRE
140
4 We use simple, clear language in job advertising. T/F
5 Open-ended questions are not suitable for explaining respondents´ opinions.
T/F
ANSWERS
1 Advertising terminology – put the words and definitions together:
A8, B1, C6, D7, E2, F5, G4, H3.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 T, 2 F, 3 T, 4 T, 5 F
OTHER SOURCES
FINK, A. 2017. How to conduct surveys. A step-by-step guide. London: Sage. ISBN
978-1-4833-7848-0.
MOOIJ, M. K., 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes.
Thousand Oaks: SAGE, ISBN 9781412970419.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter dealt with advertising in international business environment in general, with
job advertising and using questionnaire as an effective way of obtaining feedback from
customers to learn about their needs with the aim to deliver a better product or service.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
141
THE LIST OF LITERATURE
[1] ALESSANDRA, T., 2017. The Four Zones of Interpersonal Space. [online] [20. 05.
2019]. Available from: https://atworkjax.wordpress.com/2012/04/09/the-four-
zones-of-interpersonal-space/
[2] ALNAP, 2019. Chapter 4: Communication techniques. [online] [05. 02. 2019].
Available from: https://www.urd.org/IMG/pdf/MP_GB_CHAPITRE4.pdf
[3] ADAIR, J., 2004. Efektivní komunikace. Praha: Alfa Publishing. ISBN 80-86851-
10-9.
[4] ANG, S. and L. V. Dyne, 2008. Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement,
and Applications. New York: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 987-0-7656-2262-4.
[5] ANONYMOUS, 2012. A Primer on39 Communication Studies. [online] [12. 12.
2018]. Available from https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-
communication-studies/s01-04-communication-competence.html
[6] ANONYMOUS, 2018. Kulturní inteligence: jak se vztahují k různým kulturám naší
psychologie. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from https://cs.baiug.org/cultural-
intelligence-how-we-relate-to-different-cultures-of-our-3133
[7] ANONYMOUS, 2019. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions. [online] [16. 01. 2019].
Available from https://is.mendelu.cz/eknihovna/opory/zobraz_cast.pl?cast=45070
[8] AYDIN, T., 2019. [online] [16. 01. 2019]. Available from http://yunus.hacet-
tepe.edu.tr/~uras02/Hacettepe/4.sinif/Negotiation/Business%20Communica-
tion.ppt
[9] BARRETT, M. and S. C. DAVIS, 2008. Applying social identity and self – categorization
theories to children’s racial, ethnic, national and state identifications and
attitudes. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKown (Eds.), Handbook of race, racism and
the developingchild (pp. 72–110). Hoboken: Wiley.
[10] BBC, 2018. Víte, co to je CQ? Závisí na něm váš pracovní výkon. A spoustu
dalšího. [online] [28. 01. 2019]. Available from http://absolvent.cz/clanek/vite-co-
je-cq-zavisi-na-nem-vas-pracovni-vykon-spoustu-dalsiho
[11] BERNDT, R., ALTOBELLI, C. F. and M. SANDER, 2007. Mezinárodní
marketingový management. Brno: Computer Press. ISBN 978-80-251-1641-8.
[12] BERTOLINI, M., 2016. Degrees of Cultural Awareness. [online] [28. 01.
2019]. Available from https://infogram.com/degrees-of-cultural-awareness-
1gdk8pdq0k442q0
[13] BODY LANGUAGE – SCIENCE TOPIC. 2018. Body Language. [online]
[05. 03. 2019]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/topic/Body-Language
[14] BOUČKOVÁ, J. et al, 2003. Marketing. 1. vyd. Praha: C. H. Beck. ISBN
80–7179-577-1.
[15] BUSINESS-TO-YOU.COM, 2019. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.business-to-you.com/hofstedes-
cultural-dimensions
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
142
[16] CANAVOR, N. 2019. Business writing today: A practical guide. London:
Sage. ISBN 978-15-063-8832-8.
[17] CANNON, D., 2016. Introduction: The Nature of Leadership. [online] [30.
01. 2019]. Available from: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5676853/
[18] CHANNEL CROSSINGS S. R. O., 2019. Rozvoj řečových dovedností v cizím
jazyce. [online] [20. 02. 2019]. Available from http://www.kurzyprouci-
tele.cz/downloads/metodiky/Metodika_6_RecoveDovednosti.pdf
[19] CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide
to International Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. ISBN
978-0-7494-5274-2.
[20] CROUCHER, S. M., 2017. Global Perspectives on Intercultural Communication.
New York and London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317506539.
[21] DANG, L.CH., 2016. Intercultural Communication: Differences between
Western and Asian perspective. [online] [20. 12. 2018]. Available from
https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/118823/Dang_Linh.pdf?seque-
nce=1
[22] DĚDINA, J. and V. CEJTHAMR, 2005. Management a organizační chování.
Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s. ISBN 80-297-1300-4.
[23] DOYLE, A., 2018. Verbal Communication Skills List and Examples. [online]
[05. 02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.thebalancecareers.com/verbal-
communication-skills-list-2059698
[24] EMERY, C. R. and R. G. TIAN, 2002. Cross-Cultural Issues in Internet
Marketing. In: Journal ofAmerican Academy of Business, Cambridge, 12, (2), p
217-225.
[25] FERGUSON, N., 2014. Civilizace: Západ a zbytek světa. Přeložil Emanuel
Geis-sler. 1. vydání. Praha: Argo. ISBN 978-80-257-1114-9.
[26] FINK, A. 2017. How to conduct surveys. A step-by-step guide. London:
Sage. ISBN 978-1-4833-7848-0.
[27] FLORES, J., 2018. Non-verbal Communication – Eye Contact. [online] [03.
03. 2019]. Available from: https://www.tes.com/lessons/AcHXVLbrenIoYA/non-
verbal-communication-eye-contact
[28] FOURBOUL, C. V., 2016. Strategic Human Resource Management in Europe.
[online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://slidepla-
yer.com/slide/6351498/
[29] GIBSON, R., 2002. Intercultural business communication. Oxford Univ.
Press. ISBN 978-019-4421-805.
[30] HALLER, M. and R. RESSLER, 2006. National and European identity: A
study of their meanings and interrelationships. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available
from: https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-sociologie-1-2006-4-page-
817.htm
[31] HARKIOLAKIS, N. and D. HALKIAS, 2012. E-Negotiations. Networking
and cross-cultural business transactions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-131-7143-
772.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
143
[32] HEINZ, K., 2014. Intercultural Communication. Karviná: SU OPF. ISBN
978-80-7510-018-4.
[33] HUK, J., 2016. Hofstede a jeho výzkum – užitečný pomocník při řízení mezinárodních
týmů. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://www.pro-
jectman.cz/clanky/posts/101-hofstede-a-jeho-vyzkum-uzitecny-pomocnik-pri-ri-
zeni-mezinarodnich-tymu
[34] HOFSTEDE, G.and G. J. HOFSTEDE., 2007. Kultury a organizace: software
lidské mysli: spolupráce mezi kulturami a její důležitost pro přežití. Praha:
Linde. ISBN 978-80-86131-70-2.
[35] HOFSTEDE, G., 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind.
London, UK: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-707474-2.
[36] HOFSTEDE INSIGHTS, 2019. Country comparison tool. [online] [15. 01.
2019]. Available from: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
[37] HUMANITIES RESEARCH CENTER, 2019. Výzkumná skupina „Tradice
a modernita na švu kultur“. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available from:
https://hrc.ff.cuni.cz/institut-pro-studium-strategickych-regionu-uk/badatelske-
tymy/centrum-pro-studium-politicke-filosofie-etiky-a-nabozenstvi-2-3-2-2-2-2-2-
3-2-2-2/
[38] JAKLOVÁ, A., 2007. K základním pojmům interkulturní komunikace. In:
ORGOŇOVÁ, Olga, ed. Jazyk a komunikácia v súvislostiach II. Bratislava: Univerzita
Komenského, s. 295-301. ISBN 80-223-2023-4.
[39] JANDT, F. E., 2010. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities
in a Global Community. 6th ed. London: SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-7010-5.
[40] JIŘINCOVÁ, B., 2010. Efektivní komunikace pro manažer. Praha: Grada
Publishing. ISBN. 978-80-247-1708-1.
[41] KHANNA, N., 2017. The role of culture in advertising: A comparative analysis
of selected Nike print advertisements from the U.S. and Japan. [online] [15.
01. 2019]. Available from http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/44961702/Master_The-
sis_MACC_.pdf.
[42] KINGTON, A., 2013. Proxemics and Communication Styles. [online] [22.
02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.interexchange.org/articles/career-training-
usa/2013/05/06/proxemics-and-communication-styles/
[43] KLUCKHOHN, F. R. and F. L. STRODTBECK, (1961). Variations in value
orientations. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
[44] KOC, E., GULNIL, A. and A. AR AKDENIZ, 2017. The potential implications
of indulgence and restraint on service encounters in tourism and hospitality.
[online] [17 01. 2019].
Available fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/319416545_
THE_POTENTIAL_IMPLICATIONS_OF_INDULGENCE_AND_RESTRA-
INT_ON_SERVICE_ENCOUNTERS_IN_TOURISM_AND_HOSPITALITY
[45] KŘIVOHLAVÝ, J., 1988: Neverbální komunikace. Praha: SPN. ISBN 17-
297-87.
[46] KÜHLINGER, G. B. and J. FRIEDEL, 2007. Komunikační a jiné "měkké"
dovednosti. Praha: Grada Publishing, a. s. ISBN 978-80-247-2145-3.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
144
[47] LEADING PERSONALITY, 2018. Read body language, signs and gestures.
[online] [30. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://leadingpersonality.word-
press.com/2013/05/28/read-body-language-signs-and-gestures/
[48] LEWIS, R., 2019. Cultural Classification: Linear-active. [online] [30. 01.
2019]. Available from: https://www.crossculture.com/about-us/the-model/linear-
active/
[49] LNĚNIČKA, L., 2011. Národní identita a nacionalismus. [online] [29. 01.
2019]. Available from:https://is.muni.cz/do/rect/el/estud/pedf/js11/geo/web/pa-
ges/narodni-identita-nacionalismus.html
[50] LUDDEN, J. M., 2001. Effective Communication Skills: Essential Skills for
Success in Work and Life. 2nd Edition, Jist Works, ISBN 978-1563708527.
[51] LUKÁŠOVÁ, R. 2010. Organizační kultura a její změna. Praha: Grada Publishing,
a. s. ISBN 978-80-247-2951-0.
[52] LOBO, J., 2016. 11 Health benefits of hugging. [online] [03. 03. 2019].
Available from: http://webcloud32.au.syrahost.com/~discov29/the-science-of-hu-
gging-11-health-benefits-of-hugging/
[53] MADDEN, B. E., 2016. International Trade & Business Development. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/bronweneliza-
beth/bronwen-cultural-language-of-businessppt
[54] MAHADI, T. S. T. and S.M. JAFARI, 2012. Language and Culture. In: International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 2 No. 17; September
2012. ISSN 2221-0989.
[55] MACHKOVÁ, H., 2006. Mezinárodní marketing. Praha: Grada Publishing,
a.s. ISBN 802471678X.
[56] MARKGRAF, B., 2019. How to Apply Hofstede's Classification Scheme in
a Global Marketing Context. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available from https://small-
business.chron.com/apply-hofstedes-classification-scheme-global-marketing-con-
text-75008.html
[57] MATEICIUC, A., 2009. Interkulturální management a multikulturní kompetence.
Opava, SU.
[58] MEAD, R. and T. G. ANDREWS, 2009. International Management: Culture
and Beyond (4th ed.). Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-405-17399-5.
[59] MEDZIHORSKÝ, Š., 1991. Asertivita. 1. vyd. Praha 8: Elfa, ISBN 80–
900197-1-4
[60] MIKULÁŠTÍK, M., 2003. Komunikační dovednosti v praxi. Havlíčkův
Brod: Grada Publishing. ISBN 80-247-0650-4.
[61] MIND TOOLS CONTENT TEAM, 2018. The Seven Dimensions of Culture
Understanding and Managing Cultural Differences. [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/seven-dimensions.htm
[62] MOLE, J., 2003. Mind your manners. Managing business cultures in the
new global Europe. London: N. Brealey Publishing. 3rd
edition. ISBN 1-85788-314-
4.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
145
[63] MOOIJ, M. K., 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding
Cultural Paradoxes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, ISBN 9781412970419.
[64] NIKLESOVÁ, D., 2006. Charakteristika, cíle a problémy interkulturní komunikace.
[online] [9. 12. 2018]. Available from https://www.vse.cz/polek/down-
load.php?jnl=aop&pdf=137.pdf
[65] NAU, N., 2018. Language and Culture. [online] [04. 02. 2019]. Available
from http://languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/language-and-culture/
[66] NOVÝ, I., 1996. Interkulturální management: Lidé, kultura a management.
1.vyd. Praha: Grada Publishing, ISBN 80-716-9260-3.
[67] PALÁN, Z., 2018. Neverbální (nonverbální) komunikace. [online] [20. 02.
2019]. Available from: http://www.andromedia.cz/andragogicky-slovnik/never-
balni-non-verbalni-komunikace
[68] PATEL, H., 2014. Kinesics Communication Skills. [online] [25. 02. 2019].
Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/harshpatel199/kinesics-communica-
tion-skills
[69] PAZ, M., 2015. Cultural Intelligence and Its Importance in the Workplace.
[online] [04. 02. 2019]. Available from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cultural-
intelligence-its-importance-workplace-margot-paz
[70] PEACOCK, J. L., 1981. Durkheim and the Social Anthropology of Culture.
Social Forces. Oxford University Press. 59(4), p. 996-1008. ISSN 1534-7605.
[71] PERNICA, P., 2017. Nový pohled na kulturu. Logistika kultury. Praha: Academia.
ISBN 978-80-200-2730-6.
[72] PRENTICE, D. A. and D. T. MILLER, 2001. Cultural divides: understanding
and overcoming group conflict. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN
0871546892.
[73] PIATEK, K., 2015. Identity dilemmas. The case of repatriates from Kazakhstan
in Poland. Gdynia – Bielsko-Biała. ISBN 978-83-924718-1-3.
[74] PIŇOS, M., 2019. Asertivita jako strategie jednání. [online] [20. 02. 2019].
Available from: http://www.pinos.cz/text02.html
[75] PRŮCHA, J., 2010. Interkulturní komunikace. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s.
ISBN 978-80-247-3069-1.
[76] PRŮCHA, J., 2010. Interkulturní psychologie. Praha: Portál s.r.o. ISBN
978-80-7367-709-1.
[77] ROMAN, K. and J. RAPHAELSON, 2000. Writing that works. How to
communicate effectively in business. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-
00-609-5643-1.
[78] SCHARMA, P., 2019. Types of Communication (With Diagram). [online]
[05. 02. 2019]. Available from: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ma-
nagement/communication/types-of-communication-with-diagram/70191
[79] SCHRIEFER, P., 2019. What’s the difference between multicultural, intercultural,
and cross-cultural communication? [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from https://springinstitute.org/whats-difference-multicultural-intercultural-cross-
cultural-communication/
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
146
[80] SLÁMOVÁ, H. 2017. Kultura. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available
from: www.kampomaturite.cz/%5Cdata%5CUSR_001_PICTURES%5CKUL-
TURA.DOC.rtf
[81] SMITH, A. D., 1991. National identity. London. New York: Penguin Books.
ISBN 0-87417-203-9.
[82] SMITH, T., 2011. 10 Verbal Communication Skills Worth Mastering. [online]
[10. 02. 2019]. Available from: http://www.littlethingsmat-
ter.com/blog/2010/11/30/10-verbal-communication-skills-worth-mastering/
[83] SRIVASTAVA, A., 2014. Haptics – Non verbal communication. [online]
[10. 02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/ajiteshsrivastava58/hap-
tics-non-verbal-communication
[84] STUDY-BODY-LANGUAGE, 2016. Haptics. [online] [21. 01. 2019].
Available from: http://www.study-body-language.com/haptics.html
[85] SUTTIE, J., 2014. Is Your Immune System Secretly Choosing Your Friends?
[online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.mindful.org/is-your-immune-
system-secretly-choosing-friends/
[86] ŠINDELÁŘOVÁ, J. and S. ŠKODOVÁ, 2012. Interkulturní komunikace
jako dobový fenomén. Praha: MŠMT. ISBN 978-80-7414-559-9.
[87] ŠKARABELOVÁ, S., NESHYBOVÁ, J. and J. REKTOŘÍK, 2007. Ekonomika
kultury a masmédií. Brno, ISBN 978-80-210-4267-4
[88] ŠTĚPAŘ, V., 2012. Kultura obecné vymezení a dělení.
[online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://www.szs-pardubice.cz/file-down-
load/578/.
[89] SVĚTLÍK, J. 2011. Interkulturní komunikace. [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from http://vorlova.bloger.cz/obrazky/vorlova.bloger.cz/interkulturni-komu-
nikace/sv-interkulturni-komunikace.pdf
[90] TARTAKOVSKY, E., 2010. National identity. [online] [21. 01. 2019].
Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303843693_Natio-
nal_Identity
[91] TESFAYE, A., 2019. Cultural sensitivity awareness in a multicultural environment.
[online] [25. 01. 2019]. Available from http://aiesec.no/cultural-sensi-
tivity-awareness-multicultural-environment/
[92] TROMPENAARS F. and CH. HAMPDEN-TURNER, 1997. Riding The
Waves of Culture, Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd., ISBN 185788176.
[93] QUINTANILLA, K. M. and S. T. WAHL, 2011. Business and Professional
Communication. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6472-2.
[94] TIAN, K. and L. BORGES, 2011. Cross-Cultural Issues in Marketing
Communications: An Anthropological Perspective of International Business. In: International
Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1). [online] [06. 01. 2019]. Available
from http://t.www.na-businesspress.com/IJCM/TianKWeb2_1_.pdf
[95] THOMAS, D. and K. INKSON, 2017. Cultural Intelligence: Surviving and
Thriving in the Global Village. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN: 9781626568679.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
147
[96] URBAN, J. 2004. Kulturní rozdíly mají i výhody. [online] [04. 02. 2019].
Available from https://archiv.ihned.cz/c1-21849895-kulturni-rozdily-maji-i-vy-
hody
[97] USUNIER, J.-C., 1996. Marketing Across Cultures. 2. London; New York;
Toronto: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-236175-2.
[98] VARNER, I. and L. BEAMER, 2010. Intercultural communication in
global business. 5th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-
0073377742.
[99] VLACHOVÁ, K. and B. ŘEHÁKOVÁ, 2004. Národ, národní identita a
národní hrdost v Evropě. Czech Sociological Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Praha. ISSN
0038-0288.
[100] VOJTOVÁ, L., 2006. Ochrana a regenerace kulturních hodnot v území.
Brno: Masarykova universita. ISBN 80-210-4165-X.
[101] VYMĚTAL, J., 2008. Průvodce úspěšnou komunikací: Efektivní komunikace
v praxi. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s. ISBN 978-80-247-2614-4.
[102] WRENCH, J., 2009. Messsages and Meanings. [online] [04. 02. 2019].
Available from https://www.slideshare.net/JasonSWrench/chapter-4-5-presenta-
tion
[103] YAAOQUBI, J. and K. REINECKE, (2019). The Use and Usefulness of
Cultural Dimensions in Product Development. [online] [15. 01. 2019].
Available from: https://homes.cs.washington.edu/~reinecke/Publications_fi-
les/CaseStudy_CHI2018.pdf
[104] ZIMMERMANN, K. A., 2017. What Is Culture?: Definition of Culture. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-
culture-definition-of-culture.html
[105] ZPÉVÁK, A., 2017. Co je co? Národ, nacionalismus a národní identita.
[online] [28. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://casopisargument.cz/2017/08/11/co-
je-co-narod-nacionalismus-a-narodni-identita/
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
148
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY TEXT
After finalizing the study text, I will be able to:
 To react in different business situations in intercultural settings,
 To define intercultural communication,
 To speak about culture values,
 To explain culture dimensions,
 To describe the importance of non-verbal communication,
 To present clearly,
 To handle telephone conversation,
 To give an explanation of business etiquette,
 To prepare an agenda, minutes of a meeting,
 To succeed in negotiations,
 To solve complaints,
 To use appropriate terminology in business situations.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural communication
149
OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE ICONS
Study time Goals of the chapter
Key words Don’t forget to rest
Study guide Text guide
Quick preview Summary
Tutorials Definition
To remember Case study
Solved task Theorem
Check question Correspondence task
Answers Questions
Independent task Other sources
For interested persons Task to be considered
Název: Intercultural communication
Autor: Ing, Patrik Kajzar, Ph.D., Mgr. Martina Chylková
Vydavatel: Slezská univerzita v Opavě
Obchodně podnikatelská fakulta v Karviné
Určeno: studentům SU OPF Karviná
Počet stran: 150
Tato publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.