TOPIC INDIVIDUALS IN THE ORGANIZATION LEARNING, PERSONALITY Ing. Pavel Adámek, Ph.D. adamek@opf.slu.cz • Learning – key terms and learning outcomes • •The behaviourist approch to learning • •The cognitive approach to learning •The learning organization • • Personality – key terms and learning outcomes • •Defining personality, types and traits • •Peronality types A and B • •The development of the self • • • • • • • Content Individuals in the organization, explores five topics from psychology: • Learning • Personality • Communication • Perception • Motivation Introduction •These topics are of enduring significance to management and organizational behaviour. • •However, in an economic downturn, such as the second decade of the twenty-first century has produced, maintaining a capable, informed, motivated, and engaged workforce becomes more, not less, important. • •We know that, as a general rule, giving people at all levels of an organization more autonomy, and more freedom to experiment and to solve their own problems, can increase individual and organizational performance. • •However, the management tendency in times of crisis is to tighten controls on employee behaviour and to centralize decision making – actions which can have the opposite effect on motivation and performance. Introduction You should be able to define those key terms in your own words, and you should also be able to: 1.Explain the characteristics of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning. 2. 2.Explain and evaluate the technique of behaviour modification. 3. 3.Explain the socialization process, and assess the practical relevance of this concept. 4. 4.Explain and evaluate the technique of behavioural self-management. 5. 5.Describe features of knowledge management and the learning organization. Learning outcomes •In an economy dominated by knowledge work and rapid, unpredictable change, the ability to learn, and to continue learning, for individuals and organizations, is crucial. • •As a general rule, the higher the level of your education, the more employable you are likely to be, and the higher your salary. •In contributing to organizational effectiveness, employees have to know what to do, how to do it, and how well they are expected to perform. Learning theories thus affect many management practices including • induction of new recruits; • the design and delivery of job training; • design of payment systems; • how supervisors evaluate performance and provide feedback; • methods for modifying employee behaviour; • creation of learning organizations; • design and operation of knowledge management systems. Why study learning? •The learning mechanisms explored is positive reinforcement • •In practice, this means praising employees for good performance •The learning organization is a combination of structures and policies which encourage learning, with individual and corporate benefits. • •Competitive advantage means knowing how to make products, how to innovate more rapidly, how to bring new products and services more quickly to the marketplace, how to meet changing customer needs. • •The capacity to develop new knowledge affects the organization’s ability to grow and to survive, as technologies, customer requirements, government policies, and economic conditions change. • • Why study learning? •1. Learning is a part of work and work involves learning; these are not separate functions but intertwined; the separation we have made of them is artificial and often does not serve us well. • •2. Learning is not only or even primarily about obtaining correct information or answers from knowledgeable others; it is fundamentally about making meaning out of the experience that we and others have in the world. • •3. Organizational learning results from intentional and planned efforts to learn. Although it can and does occur accidentally, organizations cannot afford to rely on learning through chance. • •4. As a collective, we are capable of learning our way to the answers we need to address our difficult problems. It is ourselves we must rely on for these answers rather than experts, who can, at best, only provide us with answers that have worked in the past. • Why study learning? Learning the process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a lasting change in behaviour. Why study learning? •It is helpful to distinguish between two types of learning. • •Procedural learning, or ‘knowing how’, concerns your ability to carry out skilled actions, such as riding a horse or painting a picture. • •Declarative learning, or ‘knowing that’, concerns your store of factual knowledge, such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse, or of the contribution of the European Futurist movement to contemporary art. • •The learning can be plotted for one person, for a group of trainees, or even for a whole organization. • • Why study learning? •Behaviourist psychology a perspective which argues that what we learn are chains of muscle movements, and that mental processes are not observable, and are not valid issues for study. • •Cognitive psychology a perspective which argues that what we learn are mental structures, and that mental processes can be studied by inference, although they cannot be observed directly. 2 types of psychology •Reinforcement regimes The behaviourist approach to learning •Some airlines, concerned about the cost of fuel, want to encourage passengers to carry less luggage (a lighter plane uses less fuel). • •One approach is to allow passengers with hand luggage only to skip the check-in queues. • •Another is to charge passengers extra for each item of luggage that they check in. • •Which reinforcement regimes are being used to teach passengers to travel light? STOP AND THINK! The behaviourist approach to learning The behaviourist approach to learning Schedules of reinforcement The behaviourist approach to learning The behaviourist approach to learning To what extent should the criteria for effective punishment be used by managers when disciplining employees in an organizational context? REMEMBER punishment can be effective if it meets the following conditions: • the punishment should be quick and short; • it should be administered immediately after the undesirable behaviour; • it should be limited in its intensity; • it should be specifically related to behaviour, and not to character traits; • it should be restricted to the context in which the undesirable behaviour occurs; • it should not send ‘mixed messages’ about what is acceptable behaviour; • penalties should take the form of withdrawal of rewards, not physical pain. STOP AND THINK! The cognitive approach to learning •This approach draws concepts from the field of cybernetics which was established by the American mathematician Norbert Wiener (1954). •Cybernetic analogy an explanation of the learning process based on the components and operation of a feedback control system. • •Reinforcement is always knowledge, or feedback, about the success of past behaviour. Feedback is information that can be used to modify or maintain previous behaviours. • •We formulate plans to achieve our purposes. These plans are sets of mental instructions for guiding the required behaviour. Within the master plan (get an educational qualification) there are likely to be a number of subplans (submit essays on time; pass examinations; make new friends). • • • • • The cognitive approach to learning •The cybernetic analogy says that this control loop is a model of what goes on inside the mind. –For standard, read motive, purpose, intent, or goals. The output is behaviour. The senses are our measuring devices. –Our perceptual process is the comparator which organizes and imposes meaning on the sensory data which control behaviour in pursuit of our goals. –We have some kind of internal representation or ‘schema’ of ourselves and our environment. –This internal representation is used in a purposive way to determine our behaviour, and is also known as the individual’s perceptual world The cognitive approach to learning The cognitive approach to learning •Behaviour modification Options The cognitive approach to learning OB Mod has the following characteristics: •It applies to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, absenteeism, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. • •Rewards are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. • •Positive reinforcement can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food, or clothing. • •Behaviour change and performance improvements can be dramatic. • •The desired modification in behaviour may only be sustained if positive reinforcement is continued (although this may be intermittent). The cognitive approach to learning How do you feel about being given food, T-shirts, and praise for working harder? Do you regard this approach as practical, or as demeaning – and why? STOP AND THINK! The cognitive perspectives in practice Think of two people who you have observed recently – one a real person, the other a character in a movie or a television programme. How have they influenced you? Which of their behaviours have you adopted? What behaviours have you decided not to adopt, and why? For whom are you a role model in this way? STOP AND THINK! How does social learning theory apply to organizational settings? Organizations encourage different standards concerning: • • what counts as good work performance; • familiarity in social interactions at work; • the amount of respect to show to superiors; • dress and appearance; • social activities after work; • attitudes to work, colleagues, managers, unions, customers. The cognitive perspectives in practice Effectiveness of learning and development methods The cognitive perspectives in practice Behaviour modification versus socialization The cognitive perspectives in practice The learning organization •When Barclays Bank set up its corporate university, it wanted to develop something different. Paul Rudd, director of Barclays University (known as ‘BU’), said ‘Corporate universities are pretty ill-defined and many organizations just re-branded their training departments to make them sound sexier. •The company focus groups showed that employees were not ‘engaged’ either by attending training courses or by sitting at computer screens. The bank set up leading edge ‘metro centres’ in existing bank buildings, but with a radically different environment. Each metro centre cost £1 million to establish, and typical features include –background music –café area –high-tech training rooms –Zen room in which to relax –library –48-hour free ordering service for books, videos and CDs. •The libraries have books not on banking, but on subjects such as teaching children to read, t’ai chi, and anger management. The centres are open in the evenings, and also at weekends, when families are allowed to visit. Each of the bank’s 65,000 staff has a £150 allowance to spend on anything that is related to learning. Barclays Bank – radically different environment •The idea of the learning organization was popularized by Peter Senge, whose book The Fifth Discipline (1990) was an international best-seller. Senge argues (1990) that work at all levels must become more ‘learningful’, by applying the five ‘learning disciplines’. The learning organization The learning organization The learning organization - positives and negatives •Who are you? How do you describe yourself? How do you differ from others? How can w define and measure those characteristics and differences? • •Psychology answers these questions using the concept of personality. • •Personality the psychological qualities that influence an individual’s characteristic behaviour patterns, in a stable and distinctive manner. • •What are the foundation of personality assessments, or psychometrics, and what value are they? • •Psychometrics the systematic testing, measurement, and assessment of intelligence, aptitudes, and personality. Personality In addition to selecting job applicants, psychometric assessment has several other applications: •assessment of suitability for promotion; •assessment for redeployment purposes; •evaluation of training potential; •team and leadership development; •career counselling and development; •graduate recruitment, for applicants with limited work experience; •vocational guidance; •redundancy counselling. Personality Personality •Personality describes aspects of behaviour which are stable and enduring, and which distinguish the individual from others. • •Using the term personality in this way assumes that behaviour does have stable features, and does not change frequently, and that those distinctive properties can somehow be measured. • •The ‘stable’ behaviours which we exhibit depend, in part, on social context. • •Some personality features (as with allergies) may only appear in specific social and physical conditions. • •Both genetic and situational factors influence behaviour. Defining personality Defining personality Defining personality •One of the first personality theorists was Hippocrates (‘the father of medicine’), who lived in Greece around 400 BC. • •He claimed that personality type or ‘temperament’ was determined by bodily ‘humours’, generating the different behaviour patterns. • • Defining personality Type theory owes a debt to the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961), whose approach is based on psychological preferences for extraversion or introversion, for sensation or intuition, for thinking or feeling, and for judging or perceiving. • Defining personality Defining personality •Type approaches fit people into categories possessing common behaviour patterns. •A Personality trait, on the other hand, is any enduring behaviour that occurs in a variety of settings. •While individuals belong to types, traits belong to individuals. •You fit a type; you have a trait. •Traits are also defined in terms of predispositions to behave in a particular way. •Examples of traits include shyness, excitability, reliability, moodiness, and punctuality. • Defining personality •Trait clusters for emotionally unstable and stable types. • •Stable people are ‘adjusted’, self-confident, and optimistic; they resist irrational fears, are easygoing and realistic, solve their own problems, have few health worries, and have few regrets about their past. • • • • • •You will take a test during seminar - The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) is a three dimensional personality assessment tool that was preceded by an overlapping two-dimensional measure called the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). Defining personality •The search for trait clusters has culminated in what is known as the big five. • •Big five trait clusters that appear consistently to capture main personality traits: • •Openness, •Conscientiousness, •Extraversion, •Agreeableness, and •Neuroticism. Defining personality •Does success in your chosen career depend on your personality? They reached three main conclusions: •Conscientiousness was positively related to management level. –This suggests that you are more likely to be promoted if you are capable, sensitive, effective, well organized, thorough, dependable, reliable, ambitious, and hard-working. However, it may also be the case that high-level jobs encourage the development of those characteristics. • •Neuroticism was negatively related to management level. –This means that you are less likely to be promoted if you appear nervous, tense, anxious, stress-prone, unhappy, depressed, shy, and unable to cope. People with those characteristics may avoid management jobs with high levels of responsibility, but the stress of those jobs may increase neuroticism. – •Extraversion was positively related to management level. –This implies that you are more likely to be promoted if you are dominant, socially ascendant, confident, assertive, energetic, determined, outgoing, and sociable. The researchers note that ‘Management is an extraverted activity. Managers attend meetings, give talks and socially interact all day long, which are activities more easily handled by extraverts than introverts • • • • Defining personality •Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman (1974) identified two extreme ‘behaviour syndromes’ which explained differences in stress levels. • •They claim to have identified a ‘stress-prone’ personality. Much subsequent research has focused on what they called Type A personality and its opposite, Type B personality. • • • Personality types Are you a Type A or a Type B? Do you suffer from: alcohol abuse, excessive smoking, dizziness, upset stomach, headaches, fatigue, sweating, bad breath? If ‘yes’, these could be stress responses to your Type A behaviour pattern. Expect your first heart attack before you are 45. If you don’t suffer stress-related symptoms, perhaps you are a Type B. Whichever your response, what are you going to do about it? STOP AND THINK! Stress management: individual and organization Typical stressors that arise in organizational contexts are: •poor management style: inconsistent, competitive, crisis management, autocratic management, excessive time pressures placed on employees; • •poor relationships: with superiors, with colleagues, and with particular individuals; lack of feedback, little social contact, racial and sexual harassment; • •uncertain future: job insecurity, fear of unemployment or redeployment, few promotion opportunities, low-status job; • •divided loyalties: conflicts between personal aspirations and organizational requirements, conflict between job and family and social responsibilities. • • • • • Stress management: individual and organization What are the main work-related stressors? • •Organisation culture •Bad management practices •Job content and demands •Physical work environment •Relationships at work •Change management •Lack of support •Role conflict •Trauma. • • • • Stress management: individual and organization Causes of work-related stress •Long hours •Heavy workload •Changes within the organisation •Tight deadlines •Changes to duties •Job insecurity •Lack of autonomy •Boring work •Insufficient skills for the job •Inadequate working environment •Lack of proper resources •Lack of equipment •Few promotional opportunities •Harassment •Discrimination •Poor relationships with colleagues or bosses • • • Stress management: individual and organization Self-help for the individual A person suffering from work-related stress can help themselves in a number of ways, including: •Think about the changes you need to make at work in order to reduce your stress levels and then take action. Some changes you can manage yourself, while others will need the cooperation of others. •Talk over your concerns with your employer or human resources manager. •Make sure you are well organised. List your tasks in order of priority. •Take care of yourself. Eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly. •Consider the benefits of regular relaxation. You could try meditation or yoga. •Make sure you have enough free time to yourself every week. •Don’t take out your stress on loved ones. Instead, tell them about your work problems and ask for their support and suggestions. •Drugs, such as alcohol and tobacco, won’t alleviate stress and can cause additional health problems. Avoid excessive drinking and smoking. •Seek professional counselling from a psychologist. • • • Stress management: individual and organization Typical stressors that arise in organizational contexts are: •poor management style: inconsistent, competitive, crisis management, autocratic management, excessive time pressures placed on employees; • •poor relationships: with superiors, with colleagues, and with particular individuals; lack of feedback, little social contact, racial and sexual harassment; • •uncertain future: job insecurity, fear of unemployment or redeployment, few promotion opportunities, low-status job; • •divided loyalties: conflicts between personal aspirations and organizational requirements, conflict between job and family and social responsibilities. • • • • • Stress management: individual and organization Individual emotion-focused strategies improve resilience and coping skills and include • consciousness-raising to improve self-awareness; • exercise and fitness programmes; • self-help training in biofeedback, meditation, relaxation, and coping strategies; • time management training; • development of other social and job interests. Organizational problem-focused strategies deal directly with the stressors and include • improved selection and training mechanisms; • staff counselling programmes; • improved organizational communications; • job redesign and enrichment strategies; • development of teamworking systems. • • • • Stress management: individual and organization Personality and job performance •Behaviourism argues that we learn chains of muscle movements. As mental processes are not observable, they are not considered valid issues for study. • •Cognitive psychology argues that we learn mental structures. Mental processes are important, and they are amenable to study although they cannot be observed. • •In behaviourist theory, feedback contributes to learning by providing reinforcement; in cognitive theory, feedback provides information and is motivational. •Respondent (or Pavlovian, or classical) conditioning is a method by which an established response (good work performance) is associated with a new stimulus (supervisory encouragement). •Operant (or Skinnerian, or instrumental) conditioning is a method by which a behaviour (good work performance) is associated with a new consequence (bonus payment). RECAP •Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction condition the target by manipulating the consequences of desirable and undesirable behaviours. • •Behaviour modification works well when reward are linked clearly to specific behaviours, but does not work well when these links are ambiguous and vague; this manipulative approach may not be acceptable in some cultures. • •Social learning theory argues that we learn values, beliefs, and behaviour patterns through experience, observation, and modelling. • •Socialization can be informal – this happens anyway – or it can be formally organized through induction and training programmes. RECAP •Type theories (Hippocrates; Sheldon; Jung) classify individuals using a limited number of personality categories. • •Formal methods offer objective and comprehensive assessments of personality. But they are impersonal, are based on group norms, and don’t capture individual uniqueness • •Formal methods provide objective information about job candidates, but the links between personality assessment scores and job performance are often weak. • •Type A personalities (competitive, impatient) are more stress-prone than Type B personalities (easygoing, relaxed). • RECAP •Individuals can develop physical and psychological resilience and coping skills. • •Management has to reduce or remove work-related stressors (job design, management style, adverse working conditions, excessive workload). • •Psychometrics offer objective, systematic, comprehensive and quantitative information. They are also useful in career guidance, counselling and development. • •Individual scores are meaningless outside the context of group norms. • •It is difficult to predict job performance from a personality profile. • •Personality assessment can identify strengths in specific areas of competence. RECAP We can share our thoughts and ask questions J Pavel Adámek adamek@opf.slu.cz