International Trade
Operations
Radka Bauerová
Lecture No. 4
29. 04. 2024
➢ Trade operations in planning and managing the purchasing
process
➢ Trade operations in business logistics
➢ Procedural arrangements for international transport and
customs clearance operations
➢ Importance of electronic goods movement in trade
operations
Content of the first part
1. The specification and explanation of organizational
purchasing goals
2. Trade operations of organizational purchasing
decision process
3. The specification and explanation of organizational
purchasing forms
4. Explanation of the supplier relationship
management
What are the main factors influencing
sourcing decisions in retail in today's
digitized economy?
What impact does sustainability have on
supplier selection in the retail sector?
What technologies are becoming key to
effective supply chain management in retail,
and how are these technologies transforming
traditional supply models?
INTRODUCTION TO THE
TOPIC
THE SPECIFICATION AND EXPLANATION OF
ORGANIZATIONAL PURCHASING GOALS
The output of organizational buying process is an organization´s purchase of goods and services to
support company operations or the production of other products. Buyer-seller relationship
between companies involve working together to provide advantages that benefit both parties. These
advantages might include (Boone and Kurtz, 2014):
In today´s international marketplace, companies often practise global sourcing. Global sourcing involves
contracting to purchase goods and services from suppliers worldwide. Global sourcing requires companies
to adopt a new mind-set, some must even reorganize their operations. Among other considerations, business
sourcing from multiple multinational locations should streamline the purchase process and minimize price
differences due to labour costs, tariffs, taxes, and currency fluctuations. (Kurtz et al., 2009)
➢ Lower prices for supplies.
➢ Quicker delivery of inventory.
➢ Improved quality and reliability.
➢ Customized product features.
➢ More favourable financing terms.
Understanding the dynamics of organizational buying behaviour is crucial for identifying profitable
market segments, locating buying influences within these segments, and reaching organizational
buyers efficiently and effectively with an offering that responds to their needs (Hutt and Speh, 2017).
PURCHASING DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
➢ A fundamental characteristic
of the B2B purchasing
process is the importance of
building and maintaining
close and long-term
relationships → leads to
easier decision-making
processes and streamlined
procurement (Hutt and Speh,
2009; Koporcic et al., 2018).
Figure 1: Trade operations and steps in organizational
purchasing decision process
Source: Fauska, Kryvinska and Strauss, 2013
IS THE BUYING
PROCESS ALWAYS THE
SAME IN THE B2B
MARKETPLACE?
PURCHASE FORMS
➢ Organizations that already have experience buying a certain product take a completely
different approach to decision-making than those that are buying for the first time →
therefore need to focus their attention on the purchasing situation rather than the products.
(Hutt and Speh, 2017)
➢ Buying in the B2B marketplace can take different forms depending on a number of
factors, which can include internal and external influences (Hall, 2017).
New Purchase Modified Purchase Direct Repeat Purchase
NEW PURCHASE
In the case when purchasing organizations are confronted with a new purchasing
situation, they are in the decision-making phase, which can be referred to as an extensive
solution to the problem, → there are no precisely defined criteria for comparing
alternative products/suppliers, nor are there strong predispositions to a certain solution.
Approaches to purchasing decisions (Hutt a Speh, 2017):
➢ Assessment of a new purchase– This is where companies face the
greatest degree of uncertainty, as the product may be technically complex,
the evaluation of alternatives difficult and dealing with a new supplier has
unpredictable aspects. There is a lot of information search and the use of
formal tools in the evaluation of key aspects of purchasing decisions.
➢ Strategic purchasing– Such a purchase is of extraordinary strategic and
financial importance for the company. It is characterized, for example, by
the fact that the buyer perceives that the decision is accompanied by the
rapid pace of technological change, the search effort increases, and the
search is concentrated in a shorter period of time.
MODIFIED PURCHASE
Approaches to purchasing decisions(Hutt a Speh, 2017):
➢ Easy modified repeat purchase– includes a narrow set of
selection alternatives and a moderate amount of both
information and analysis. Buyers focus on the potential of
long-term relationships with suppliers.
➢ Complex modified repeat purchase– involves a large set
of choice alternatives and presents some uncertainty.
Active information seeking, use of sophisticated analytical
techniques, and careful consideration of long-term needs.
The organization's decision-makers believe that they can gain significant benefits by
rethinking alternatives. It is characterized by an effort to adapt products to changing
customer requirements (the buyer requires partial changes). The purchasing process
becomes more complex (multiple departments are involved). It is specific in that if the
supplier is not able to accept the customer's requirements, the cooperation is terminated.
REPEAT PURCHASE
Approaches to purchasing decisions(Hutt a Speh, 2017):
➢ Causal– they do not involve any search or analysis of information
and the product is less important, the emphasis is only on the
delivery of the order.
➢ Routine low-priority decisions– are a bit more important than the
causal approach and involve a moderate amount of analysis. With
this type, we can look at other sources or alternative methods of
production to make sure that there are no new technical advances
available on the market.
Routine problem-solving is a decision-making process that is used in direct repeat buying, where buyers
apply well-established selection criteria that have been refined over time as buyers have developed a
predisposition to bids from one or more carefully vetted suppliers. The purchasing department handles
direct purchasing situations by routinely selecting a vendor from a list of approved vendors and then
placing an order (for example, computer and office supplies, maintenance and repair items, travel
services)
BUYER (RETAIL)
➢ The ability to understand and anticipate the needs
and wants of consumers and then put together a range
of products that meets consumer requirements.
➢ Creative and analytical skills in anticipating trends.
➢ Ability to analyze competitors' activities.
It plays a key role in the product management process of all retail companies. Their task
is to implement the brand identity of the retail chain through the product portfolio
(assortment). Buyers develop, create, and purchase products for their portfolio. Various
skills and competencies are required to perform the role of a buyer(Fernie et al.,
2015):
The role of a buyer in retail is complex and extensive, yet three
significant responsibilities can be identified: assortment
assembly, supplier base selection, off-shore sourcing.
COMPILATION OF ASSORTMENT
A product line must meet three specific things– to take into account customer
requirements, to bring profit and differentiation advantage. (Fernie et al., 2015)
➢ Nákupčí vypracuje plán nákupu, který stanovuje jasné pokyny ohledně typů
výrobků a značek, které mají být nakoupeny s informacemi o úrovni marže, které je
třeba dosáhnout → slouží k usměrňování a informovanému rozhodování o výběru
dodavatele.
1. CONSIDERATION OF CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS
➢ The product range must meet the needs of customers while offering
them a choice in terms of product variants, brands, prices, quality
and performance characteristics.
➢ Within a particular customer segment and a specific product
category, the buyer tries to accommodate all eventualities by putting
together a range of products that provides customers with sufficient
choice.
COMPILATION OF ASSORTMENT
2. ENSURING PROFITABILITY
➢ The product range is designed to provide the retailer with maximum profit
opportunities, which is a complex task → working with the merchandiser, who is
tasked with monitoring, controlling and ensuring the financial performance of the
assortment. In cooperation (buyer and merchendiser) subsequently:
• It sets target margins that determine both the maximum price a retailer can pay
to a supplier and the price/volume of goods that a retailer must sell to
customers.
Based on the target margins, buyers must then put together a product range that meets the
following criteria (Fernie et al., 2015):
➢ Price – Entry and exit prices that correspond to customer expectations and budgets +
sufficient variability of choice between both price extremes.
➢ Brand – Alternatively, a comprehensive combination of supplier and own brands that
satisfies consumer expectations and demand, but also ensures a sufficient level of profit.
COMPILATION OF ASSORTMENT
2. ENSURING PROFITABILITY
➢ Special discounts– Most retailers offer some form of promotional discount or price
reduction at the end of the season. These price reductions serve to satisfy customers'
desire for a "bargain" and a "good deal". Promotions and price cuts can have a
detrimental impact on target margins if not carefully managed. It is very important for
buyers to anticipate price reductions at the beginning of the buying cycle as much as
possible so that they can be included in the financial forecast.
➢ Availability – There is no point in developing an excellent product that cannot be
produced in sufficient quantities to meet consumer demand. The buyer must consider not
only the likely level of demand for the product, but also whether its suppliers can fully
meet the availability targets that the product must meet in order to achieve the desired
level of profit.
COMPILATION OF ASSORTMENT
3. DIFFERENTIATION ADVANTAGE
There are two main ways in which a buyer can secure a compelling differentiating advantage for their
company (Fernie et al., 2015):
➢ To provide something that is exclusive and unique in the market – For example, by establishing
cooperation with the manufacturer's leading brand. The fact that a manufacturer's unique product is
only available from a certain retailer is a powerful means of ensuring loyalty to that retailer.
➢ Achieve differentiation while achieving a higher profit margin– This can be achieved by
developing limited editions of products (limited quantities for a limited period of time). Their short
"shelf life" serves to maintain customer engagement, ensuring a certain level of loyalty.
The product range must provide some form of good competitive advantage to the retailer.
It is not advantageous for a buyer to put together an assortment that only copies the
assortment that is already available from other sellers.
➢ Buyers must ensure that the product range offers an appropriate level of
differentiation and social benefit.
SUPPLIER BASE SELECTION
➢ In principle, the buyer is responsible for identifying,
selecting, and establishing relationships with the
supplier base.
➢ Choosing a supplier base is a complex task → very few
retail companies own their supplier base, those that do
are mostly manufacturers who have integrated into retail
and distribution as part of their core business model.
➢ The integration of manufacturing and retail is most
often seen in the luxury retail sector (Louis Vuitton,
Hermès), with luxury goods manufacturers who
subsequently integrated to take direct control of the retail
sales of their brands.
What do we call this
situation?☺
VÝBĚR DODAVATELSKÉ ZÁKLADNY
Luxury brands, such as Giorgio Armani, started out as a design company,
using external suppliers and external warehouse workers to produce and sell
their goods. However, the company soon established a worldwide network of
retail stores and then began to acquire ownership of important suppliers.
GLOBAL NETWORK OF RETAIL STORES
➢ Today, the companies are developing a global network of retail stores and have
subsequently begun to acquire ownership of major suppliers → are gaining control over
compliance with product quality standards and stabilizing their availability.
➢ Direct ownership of the supplier base helps maintain exclusivity and keep competitors
out, while improving flexibility in responding to market opportunities, leading to
increased margins.
SOURCING STRATEGY
➢ Procurement is the process of determining
the manner, place, and time of purchase of
finished products. Sourcing is not only
considered as a business function of
sourcing products at desired prices, but an
integral part of an organization's stratégy
(Zeng, 2000).
➢ Global supply emerged in the early 1970s as
the advantages of buying abroad associated
with the low cost of production in less
developed foreign countries began to be
realized (Mathyssens et al., 2006).
➢ In the case of procurement, we can talk
about five levels of sourcing(Fernie et al.,
2015). Source:Fernie et al., 2015, s. 179
Figure 2: Levels of sourcing
OFF-SHORE SOURCING
In the past, there has been a significant restructuring of the supply
geography for retailers from developed economies. Increases in
labor costs, changes in production capabilities, as well as changing
worker aspirations have led to most developed economies relying
on other economies to produce and supply goods sold in their retail
stores. When creating supply strategies, retailers need to think
about a variety of aspects. These include the following (Fernie et
al., 2015):
➢ Where will they draw from? (Supplier Base Geography).
➢ Whether the supply channels will be from our own resources
or from outsourcing.
➢ It is necessary to decide whether the relationships with
suppliers will be strategic and long-term, or opportunistic and
short-term.
➢ It is important to make a tactical decision whether one
supplier, two suppliers or multiple suppliers will be used for a
given range of products.
Figure 3: Resource classification
Source:Fernie et al., 2015, s. 179
SUPPLIER SELECTION PROCESS
It consists of six steps (Ravindran a Warsing, 2016):
1. Determine whether the item should be produced or purchased.
2. Define various criteria for selecting suppliers.
3. Choosing the right supplier.
4. Negotiation of contract terms.
5. Monitoring compliance.
6. Continuous evaluation and feedback.
Identify
products to
buy
Establish
criteria for
the selection
of suppliers
Identify
and select
vendors
Negotiate
the terms
of the
contract
Track and
control
suppliers
Evaluate
suppliers
and
provide
feedback
PROCEDURES FOR DEVELOPING NEW RELATIONSHIPS
WITH SUPPLIERS
The process of developing new supplier relationships has several
phases(Fernie et al., 2015):
1. Initial research to identify potential suppliers, sourced from
secondary sources, market recommendations and previous
experience.
2. Establishing initial contacts with potential suppliers directly
or through their international centers to inspect production
facilities and obtain product samples. Retailers typically
develop standard procedures for evaluating potential
suppliers.
In recent years, initially influenced by the Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) agenda, retailers have been thinking more
carefully about the ethical and environmental behaviour of
their suppliers when making decisions about supplier selection.
What is an ESG report? What is its connection with the development of
new relationships with suppliers?
New supplier selection criteria
In addition to factors relevant to a prospective supplier´s sustainability performance, the buyer will also
assess the supplier in relation to six key areas. These areas are supplier reputation, product portfolio,
terms of trade, technology and supply chain competence, marketing support, and supplier performance
evaluation. (Fernie et al., 2015)
Supplier reputation
The reputation of a supplier is a crucial consideration for all buyers. Reviews will include consideration of the reputation of
the supplier´s senior management and staff, for quality, delivery and margin target record, as well as in areas such as safety
and ethical standards. The reputation of a prospective supplier is perhaps best evidenced by a review of the supplier´s current
customer portfolio. The number and reputation of their customers, and the extent to which these customers may be
significant rivals, will certainly have a powerful impact upon any evaluation of the supplier´s reputation and status in the
market. (Fernie et al., 2015)
Product portfolio
Greater scale economies and better margins can be secured if the supplier is able to provide a wider base of products.
Therefore, a buyer will be interest to know the types of product a new supplier could provide. Buyers are also interested in
the product development capability of a supplier. An evaluation of the quality standards of the supplier will also be essential,
while considerations of the extent to which a supplier can provide exclusive ranges is also of interest to retailers who require
differentiated product offerings. (Fernie et al., 2015)
New supplier selection criteria
Term of trade
The core requirement of any buyer selection process is a consideration of the pricing structure that the supplier operates. If
the buyer represents a large and powerful retailer, then there is every likelihood that the financial assessment of a prospective
supplier will extend beyond considerations of their ability to deliver a competitive cost price. These buyers will assess the
extent to which one supplier compared with another can provide financial support for marketing campaigns, promotions,
mark-downs and discounts for the meeting of volume sales targets.
Technology and supply chain competence
Buyers will also carefully assess any new supplier´s technological capability. A buyer will want to be satisfied that the
supplier has an efficient and effective stock management system so as to ensure that the supplier will be able to provide
excellent levels of customer service with respect to stock availability, quality control and payment transfer systems.
Marketing support
Suppliers may be required to pay a listing fee in order to ensure that their product is carried by a retailer, and these payments
will be in addition to payments made to fund and support promotional activities. The purpose of these initiatives is to
encourage volume sales of the suppliers´ products. The benefit to the supplier is that the more of their products sold, the
more efficiently their factories will operate.
Supplier performance evaluation
Buyers continually monitor the efficiency and effectiveness of suppliers. Various dimensions are considered as part of that
evaluation, including careful consideration of the quality and service standards that a supplier can provide.
SUPPLIER SELECTION PROCESS – selection criteria;
identification and selection of supplier(s) - the task
TEAM WORK
Imagine that you work in a Czech company that sells
wooden wall pictures. You have been tasked by your
supervisor to find a new supplier of wood that would be
suitable for making these pictures. The wood must be hard
but flexible at the same time. Due to the high prices of
wood in our market, try to find a suitable supplier in the
foreign market.
Task development process:
• Establish a criteria for selecting suppliers
• Identify suppliers
• Assess suppliers in relation to six key areas
• Select those supplier(s) with whom it is appropriate to
negotiate the terms of contract
Time: 20 minutes + 10 minutes of presenting the results
to all members
1 POINT TASK
Example of wooden pictures that your company produces:
Content of the second part
1. Business operations in logistics,
2. Reverse logistics.
BUSINESS OPERATIONS IN LOGISTICS (BUSINESS
LOGISTICS)
Inventories account for 60-80% of the total value of
assets in trading firms.
Thus, inventory weighs 60-80% of the invested capital,
→ 60-80% is used to purchase inventories of goods.
Inventory management as a key area of business
management.
The goal of inventory management is to ensure the continuity of
business operations at minimal costs related to the supply
process.
What causes too low
an inventory level?
What causes too
much inventory?
HANDLING UNITS IN BUSINESS LOGISTICS
Preference for the easiest, fastest, least laborious and cheapest ways of
performing individual tasks → an effort to eliminate duplicate and
unproductive activities and achieve synergic effects.
➢ Rationalization and standardization of the process of handling and transport of goods
→ unification of the form and size of compact units of transported goods so that
equipment and means of transport can be adapted to it and used for efficient use of their
capacity. (Mulačová a Mulač, 2013)
Classification of handling units from the point of view of
business logistics(Cimler a Zadražilová, 2007):
• Zero-order handling unit
• First Order Handling Unit (15 kg)
• Handling unit of the second order (250-1,000 kg, 160-250 kg)
• Handling unit of the third order (10 – 30 tons)
• Handling unit of the fourth order (400 – 2,000 tons)
PRODUCT PACKAGING
The four main types of packaging include(Boučková, 2006):
➢ Transport – used for transport, handling and storage of goods (pallets, containers, boxes)
➢ Consumer – ensure the sale of products to consumers (cans, bottles, boxes, cups)
Packaging must therefore meet several requirements, and in
this context, we distinguish three basic functions of
packaging (Mulačová a Mulač, 2013):
1. Technical 2. Marketing 3. Ecological
➢ Commercial – enable the delivery of goods to the
merchant, or the presentation of goods at the point of sale
(boxes, cartons)
➢ Service – offered by the retailer to facilitate sales and
ensure hygiene (bags for pastries, fruit and vegetables,
carrier bags, dessert trays)
TECHNICAL FUNCTION OF THE PACKAGING
It consists of ensuring the protection of goods and maintaining their quality so
that the customer does not feel negatively how far they had to travel to the
shelf. At the same time, the strength, dust-free and impermeability of the
packaging are important parameters.
Technical Attributes of the Packaging(Pražská a Jindra, 2006):
➢ good manoeuvrability – easy gripping, suitability for automated handling,
➢ stackability and stability of means of transport,
➢ the ability to easily clean and maintain the means of transport,
➢ Possibility of saving space when transporting empty means of transport,
➢ the ability to reduce the labour intensity of handling,
➢ Possibility of recycling or easy disposal of packaging and means of
transport.
PACKAGING MARKETING FUNCTION
The importance of packaging design is increasing with the expanding range
of goods and the growth of impulse purchases.
The packaging greatly contributes to the uniqueness
and uniqueness of the product
➢ Grab the customer's attention and make them focus
their attention on the relevant product
➢ Unique product identification
➢ Submission of basic product information
What standard (legislation) specifies the
minimum requirements for product labelling?
→ Act No. 634/1992 Coll., on Consumer
Protection, as amended
Do you recognize the
brand of this product?
+ peripheral vision
ECO-FRIENDLY FUNCTION OF THE PACKAGING
Once the packaging has fulfilled its function, it is no longer useful and
needs to be disposed of. In the past, not much attention was paid to this
aspect, and this, together with other negative phenomena, was
significantly reflected in the deterioration of the environment.
Now the situation is fundamentally changing and
environmental aspects are coming to the forefront of the
interest of the public and state authorities or relevant
thematically profiled multinational organizations.
In the field of waste management, the principles of
sustainable development are significantly implanted and the
relevant legislation imposes increasingly strict requirements
on the materials used, the obligations of manufacturers and
traders, and the methods of disposal of used packaging.
REVERSE LOGISTICS
➢ It ensures the transport of goods, materials, raw materials, waste and
packaging from the consumer or user back to the manufacturer, seller
or other processor → it is a process of reusing materials.
➢ The aim is to ensure that materials are reused or recovered in a way that
is economically interesting and environmentally friendly.
➢ The aim of the process is to claim, recycle, reuse or dispose of in an
environmentally friendly way (this is the area of green logistics*).
*Zelená logistika – obchodní praxe snižování dopadu logistických procesů na životní prostředí
**Zdroj: https://logistika.ekonom.cz/c1-66795010-reverzni-logistika-musi-byt-rychla-a-presna
According to experts' estimates, around 80% of
customers decide whether customers will return to
the retailer for their next purchase depending on the
quality of their reverse logistics.**
TYPY VRATEK
➢ Returns – In the case of returns, the task of reverse logistics is to ensure that the processing of returned goods is as
fast and efficient as possible so that they can go on sale again. However, the goal of reverse logistics is also to
minimize the amount of returned goods. This is solved, for example, by fashion e-shops, where the return rate is high.
➢ Refurbishment – For some businesses, customers can return goods that have lost their purpose. The company then
renovates and resells it, or removes usable parts and recycles the rest. IKEA, for example, has become famous for
this, encouraging customers to return used furniture to give it a new lease of life. Or, for example, Apple, which offers
a discount on a new one when an old product is returned.
➢ Packaging material – Reusing or recycling excess packaging in an environmentally friendly way pays off for
companies. A classic example is Rohlík.cz that offers eco-friendly reusable bags or processes returnable bottles and
packaging.
➢ Unsold/unused goods – This can be the return of unsold goods to manufacturers due to, for example, poor sales,
obsolescence of goods, or the discovery of errors during the receipt of goods. Another example is construction
companies that move unused material from one construction site to another, where they use it.
➢ Undelivered goods – This type of reverse logistics must be dealt with by every e-shop. For example, if the customer
does not pick up the goods from the carrier in the end.
➢ Exchanges – Situations where customers want to exchange purchased goods for other items.
➢ Borrowing and renting – If the company also lends goods, it must also deal with the return process through reverse
logistics.
➢ Repairs and maintenance – Under some terms and conditions, customers are entitled to regular maintenance or
repair of goods in the event of damage.
PUSH AND PULL REVERSE LOGISTICS TOOLS
The first type of tools are the so-called push tools, which include state
interventions that force companies to include the environmental burden of the
company in their costs, so that the real costs for society are also taken into
account in the market environment. Logistics acts here as a tool for optimizing
production processes with regard to the rules set by the state.
Push influences can also include:
➢ protests by citizens' initiatives,
➢ directives of industry associations;
➢ guidelines for lending and grants;
➢ environmental awareness of employees,
➢ Competitors' environmental behavior.
The best packaging is the one that doesn't
come out…
Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on packaging and packaging waste
(reference here) → sets out requirements to ensure that packaging is safe and sustainable.
PUSH AND PULL REVERSE LOGISTICS TOOLS
The second type of instrument is consumer pressure on manufacturers. This is a less
imperative mechanism and depends very much on education, economic situation and the
relationship of consumers to environmental protection.
Other elements of the pull strategy include:
➢ the wishes of the store,
➢ awarding eco-prizes, eco-labelling,
➢ subsidy programmes for environmental activities.
For the purposes of "eco-marketing", consumers are divided into active, activatable and passive according
to their relationship to the environment. Each of these groups is addressed in a specific way.
A few basic reasons why businesses should pay attention to reverse logistics include:
➢ use of functional parts of degraded products,
➢ reduction of landfill fees;
➢ complaints, as feedback revealing design deficiencies,
➢ Customer expectations or responsive complaint handling as a competitive advantage.
Content of the third part
1. Procedural arrangements for international
transport and customs clearance operations
INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING
Do you know which
mode of transport
accounts for around
90% of the tonnage
of world trade?
LOGISTICS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
International logistics is the process involving planning, implementing, and
controlling the flow and storage of goods, services, and related information
from the point of origin to the point of consumption, which is located in
another country (David, 2017)
➢ It is influenced by many factors
➢ One of the distinctive features of contemporary
logistics is the growth in the number and quality
of relationships and links between individual
links in the logistics chain on a global scale – new
ways, methods and means are sought that allow us
to succeed in a highly competitive environment.
➢ Increase in the total volume of goods transported
Figure 4: Total volume of international
maritime trade (million tonnes of cargo)
Source: Statista, 2023
FREIGHT FORWARDERS vs. CARRIERS
Unlike a forwarder, the carrier provides transport by its
own means of transport, enters into contractual relations
with clients in its own name, on its own account and at its
own risk.
• It accounts for about 4/5 of the volume of international trade.
• Forwarding contract
• Forwarding function – contractual provision of transport and
accompanying logistics services (warehousing, inspection
services, customs clearance, insurance, packaging...)
FREIGHT
FORWARDER
• Contract of carriage
(mandatory information,
optional information,
permitted information)
• Receipt of the cargo is
documented (bill of lading,
bill of lading, air waybill...)
CARRIER
PORTS AND MARITIME TRANSPORT
➢ It carries out around 90% of global
trade.
➢ Globalization is the domain of maritime
transport, with container transport at the
forefront of this process.
➢ The global maritime transport system
consists of a number of major gateways
→ allow access to major production and
consumption regions
➢ Between the gates are the main nodes
that act as interconnection and
transshipment points between maritime
circulation systems.
Figure 5: Container rates – growth as an
impact of COVID-19
Source: Statista, 2023
SEAAND RIVER TRANSPORT
➢ The most important mode of transport in international trade operated by
freight forwarders.
➢ Shipowners are economically very strong entities (shipowners) and they
associate in maritime conferences.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low costs over long distances Linked to climatic conditions and weather
High transport capacity Longer transit time (slow shipping)
They can carry heavier and larger loads than
air freight at a fraction of the cost
The necessity to change to another means of
transport – higher costs for handling and
transshipment of commodities
Suitable for transporting bulk materials
(agricultural products and raw materials)
Limited network of transport routes
NÁMOŘNÍ A ŘÍČNÍ DOPRAVA
➢ Vessels are divided according to the route, size and type of cargo
transported (Machková et al., 2009):
• Dry cargo vessels
• Tanker ships
Operations are subject to infrastructure and sufficient seaport capacity – the largest and most
important ports are currently the Asian ports (Hong Kong, Singapore, Shanghai, Shenzhen,
Busan), Los Angeles and the European ports of Rotterdam, Hamburg and Antwerp.
Global maritime trade faces a complex environment that presents several major challenges.
In addition to the gradual recovery of disrupted supply chains, some freight forwarders are
experiencing a decline in demand for transport capacity, resulting in decreasing rates in
ocean freight. The cost of transporting a 12-meter container from Asia to Europe has
dropped from $14,000 to just $1,700. (situation as of September 2023; source: Practical
Logistics, 2023)
SEAAND RIVER TRANSPORT
What is a bill of
lading??
Certificate of acceptance of goods
for sea transport, one-time security,
document recording ownership of
goods.
➢ If there are no obvious defects during the acceptance inspection, the consignment note
remains "clean" – it is easier to sell it than if the bill of lading is unclean.
➢ A bill of lading is a document with the right to request the release of a consignment.
➢ The carrier is obliged to hand over the consignment to a person authorised to issue a bill
of lading if this person submits the bill of lading and confirms receipt of the consignment
on it.
➢ The rights from the bill of lading are transferred when the document is issued:
• on the order of the authorised person (completed or blank endorsement (indosament),
• in the name of the beneficiary (according to the provisions on the assignment of the claim),
• to the bearer (by physically handing over the bearer).
AIRPORTS & AIR TRANSPORT
➢ In terms of tonnage, it carries a negligible amount of cargo compared to sea
transport (0.2% of the total tonnage), but in terms of total value, it
transports 15% of the value of world trade.
➢ It is worth approximately 70 times more than its maritime counterpart and
approximately 30 times more value than freight transport by land.
It is related to the types of goods it
transports. The location of cargo
airports corresponds to high-tech
production clusters as well as
intermediate points where cargo aircraft
are refuelled and/or cargo-loaded.
WHY?
Figure 6: Evolution of air freight rates
Source: TAC Index & Drewry, 2022
AIR TRANSPORT
➢ Overall, a very low volume of air freight in international trade, as it is only
used for selected commodities such as computers, medicines, food and
perishable raw materials, flowers or works of art.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Speed and reliability High Shipping Costs
Safety Despite minimal weather effects, there is a
certain dependence on the weather (it is not
possible to land and take off in bad weather)
Fastest over long distances Non-ecological
Highly predictable transit times (departure
and arrival times)
Limited shipments
AIR TRANSPORT
➢ Czech Airlines has been a member since 1927.
➢ Acceptance of the shipment according to the IATA Conditions of Carriage
is certified by means of an Air Waybill (AWB) – it is also a document
proving the conclusion of the contract.
Air transport is generally carried out as:
• Regular line (additional loading, consolidation)
• Irregular (charter)
Containers used in air transport are called "Unit Load Devices" (ULDs) and are
quite different from containers used in ocean freight. Rather, they are used to
aggregate small individual shipments. Aircraft containers are not intermodal in
design.
ROAD AND RAIL TRANSPORT
➢ In international transport, they are
rather marginal – their importance is
focused on their role in the first and
last kilometers of global
distribution.
➢ However, there are exceptions –
trade between Canada, the United
States and Mexico, a large part of
Western European trade
Figure 6: Increase in road transport rates Q1/2017Q3/2022
and their decrease since Q4/2022
Source:Upply, 2023
RAIL TRANSPORT
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Suitable for larger volumes of goods and independent
of traffic on the roads
Affected by the weather (freezing of
tracks)
Environmentally friendly Slow (influenced by the timetable)
Suitable for transporting heavy cargo shipments Limited flexibility
Possibility of transporting dangerous goods High proportion of fixed costs
Good prediction of transport time, lower costs for long
distances than for truck transport
In most cases, it is not possible to
arrange "door to door"
➢ Suitable for larger volumes of goods, especially if the company has a siding available.
➢ Proof of receipt of goods for transport and conclusion of a transport contract is a railway
consignment note (issued for wagon consignments separately for each wagon, for
individual consignments or express consignments for each consignment)
RAIL TRANSPORT
It is used to transport cargo, which can take the form of:
• wagons – at least one separate wagon is required for each transport,
• individual consignments – limited in volume or weight, are assembled
by the groupage service in such quantities that their dispatch is
economically and logistically efficient
• express consignments – the weight is limited to 15 kg, they are
transported at the same time as the transport of passengers,
• Container shipments
• Combined transport – such as RoLa (road and rail transport)
Definition of ČSN 269375 "Terminology of combined transport“
• Combined transport is intermodal transport where the major part of the route is carried out by rail, inland
waterway or sea, and the initial (collection) or final part (distribution) takes place by road and is usually as short as
possible.
• Intermodal transport is the multimodal transport of goods in one and the same transport unit or road vehicle,
which successively uses different modes of transport without handling the goods themselves in changing modes of
transport.
• Multimodal transport is the transport of goods by at least two different modes of transport.
TRAFFIC
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Speed of delivery, great time savings Harm to the environment
High mobility and accessibility – dense
network of roads
Environmental Disturbance – Significant Land Use
Flexibility and door-to-door transport,
versatility
Low throughput of the main road and distribution
network – high accident rate, traffic jams – dangerous
Great variability of means of transport Limited volume of transport – capacity of the means of
transport
➢ The fastest growing, but also the most problematic mode of transport in Europe.
➢ Strong competitive environment among carriers.
➢ Main forms of transport:
• Individual (pick-up service) – prices based on fixed transport tariffs
• Full truck – contractual prices
COMBINED TRANSPORT
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Reduce the risk of damage or loss of shipment The necessity of transshipment during transport
Cost savings on transport and handling Investment-intensive construction of
transshipment stations
Possibility of using standardized packaging Negative impact on the environment
Use of unified means of transport Timetable bound
Save time and use all available modes of transport Waiting at transshipment points
➢ Definitions vary widely from country to country.
➢ In some cases, it is carried out on the basis of a single transport document – multimodal
transport. Cargo transport by multiple modes of transport, where unified units are
transported, which do not change in weight or form, and a different transport document is
issued for each mode of transport – intermodal transport.
➢ The basic purpose of combined transport is to ensure the physical movement of the object
of transport "from door to door" using a single multimodal transport operator (MTO).
OTHER TYPES OF TRANSPORT
Oil and gas pipeline transport Postal and courier transport
➢ Continuous continuous
transport
➢ It requires a high initial
investment, but is not subject
to climatic influences
➢ Pipelines from mining areas
and pipelines from terminals
in major ports
➢ Importance is growing in the
context of e-commerce
➢ Express delivery of smaller
volumes and weights or
business documents
➢ The advantage is high speed
and coverage of the transport
section
➢ It also provides customs
clearance, personal handover
SELECTION OF THE APPROPRIATE TYPE OF
INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT– the task
TEAM WORK
Imagine you work for Crazy Household Woods, a Czech
company that sells wooden wall pictures. Your supervisor
has given you the task of selecting the appropriate type of
transport for an order of 100 wooden paintings.
Task development process:
• Identify two suitable types of transport to the country
you have drawn.
• Analyse the pros and cons of your chosen types of
transport.
• Write the basis on which you will make your decision
when choosing one of these two types of transport
(what criteria will you consider).
Time: 20 minutes + 10 minutes of presenting the results
to all members
1 POINT TASK.
Example of wooden pictures that your company produces:
GLOBAL SHIPPING COSTS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Interactive map available here: https://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/TransportCost.html
Interactive map created by UNCTAD and the World Bank
Content of the fourth part
1. Importance of electronic goods movement in
trade operations
MODERN APPROACHES IN RETAILING WITHIN
BUSINESS MODELS
A business model is a set of planned activities that result in profit on the
market, in the case of an e-commerce business model, the Internet and web
space are used for this.
The following approaches can be used within the e-commerce business model
to improve the quality of business processes, speed them up, make them more
accurate and cheaper:
➢ Multi-channel retail,
➢ Digital Marketing,
➢ Machine learning algorithms,
➢ Cloud services,
➢ Augmented reality,
➢ Virtual Reality,
➢ Voice AI activation,
➢ Metaworld/Metaverse
BARRIERS TO
ACCEPTANCE
MULTI-CHANNEL RETAIL
➢ It is a distribution approach in which a
retailer sells products to consumers
through multiple retail formats
(touchpoints – physical store purchases,
website purchases, telephone orders,
postal orders, interactive television,
catalogue orders, comparison shopping
sites).
➢ The goal is to maximize revenue and
loyalty by offering customers choice
and convenience.
Figure 4: Percentage of U.S. consumers who shop through
different channels*
* Survey conducted in 2018
Zdroj: Periscope – McKinsey, 2018
What is the difference between a multichannel and omnichannel
strategy?
OMNICHANNEL
- means that the company uses multiple channels to interact with the customer, with the customer experience
seamless throughout that interaction, and the transitions between channels and their owners are easy.
MULTICHANNEL
- means that the company uses multiple channels to interact with the customer, but there may be gaps in communication,
lost or missing information, and the experience will be fragmented, not fluid, and the customer will feel confused.
AUGMENTED AND VIRTUAL REALITY
Ikea place – reference here
Walmart Virtual Store – reference here
AUGMENTED REALITY
➢ AR is an enhanced, interactive version of a real-world environment that
is created using digital visuals, sounds, and other sensory cues through
holographic technology.
➢ Consumers can virtually try on clothes or test products through augmented
reality.
➢ For example, on the Sephora mobile app,
users can virtually try on makeup in realtime.
By placing filters on their live selfies,
users can see how makeup products would
look on their face. The app scans the
customer's face, recognizes their eyes, lips,
and cheeks for product placement, allowing
them to try on makeup virtually
VIRTUAL REALITY
➢ While augmented reality is transforming the consumer experience of retail,
virtual reality is changing the business side. Virtual reality is useful for
visualizing and redesigning stores and testing different layouts without
having to physically rebuild the store.
➢ Retailers use VR to plan store organization that is most appropriate and
logical for consumer preferences.
➢ Virtual and augmented reality is
especially suitable for e-commerce,
where it allows businesses to create
much more immersive and engaging
experiences that mimic physical store
experiences, but also add
improvements that are not possible in
the real world.
Figure 5: Dolce & Gabbana virtual store
Source: https://said.simon.com/a-virtual-shopping-experience-with-
dolcegabbana-at-the-shops-at-crystals/
META-WORLD AND METAVERSE
➢ A meta-world is a virtual world, i.e. a permanent online computer-generated environment
where multiple users in remote physical locations can communicate in real time for work or
entertainment. As such, virtual worlds are a subset of virtual reality applications or, in other
words, computer-generated simulations of three-dimensional objects or environments with
seemingly real, direct, or physical user interactions. (Dionisio et al., 2013)
➢ The metaverse is a superordinate concept, where it is a shared virtual world in which
land, buildings, avatars, and even names can be bought and sold, often using cryptos. In
these environments, people can walk around with friends, visit buildings, purchase goods
and services, and participate in various events.
Virtual worlds are of great future importance for businesses. They are becoming interactive,
collaborative, and commercial platforms with huge potential for virtual e-commerce, as
virtual worlds offer flexibility in branding, new product development, testing, and
advertising (Gajendra et al., 2012).
NIKELAND – AN EXAMPLE OF THE METAWORLD
Nikeland is modeled after the actual headquarters of the Oregon-based company. Currently,
visitors can play "tag", "dodgeball" and "ground is lava" on the platform, but they can also
design their own mini-games. Over time, Nike wants to integrate in-game moments during
global sporting events such as the World Cup and the Super Bowl. The sports brand will
continue to update the virtual world in include the integration of athletes and products,
writes CNBC.
Nikeland also includes a digital showroom where users
can dress their avatar in specific Nike clothing. It is a
space where visitors can also discover the company's
latest products. Metaverse, a buzzword in the tech
industry after Facebook rebranded itself as Meta, is a
shared virtual world where people can interact with
others through avatars, enjoy concerts, and make digital
purchases.
RALPH LAUREN IN ROBLOX
➢ Ralph Lauren has his collection in the Roblox metaworld. He presented a holiday-themed experience
with unique clothing. Here, players can explore the winter landscape while participating in communal
activities such as ice skating, roasting marshmallows, as well as engaging in a holiday treasure hunt to
unlock exclusive extras. Players can also customize their avatars with Ralph Lauren outfits in the virtual
Polo stores located in Roblox.
➢ Since there is no need to buy any raw materials and labor is
minimal, virtual clothing is almost entirely profitable. (It
takes days or even weeks to sew a couture garment,
compared to editing pre-programmed garment templates,
which can take minutes.) Minting designs in the metaverse
also opens up huge possibilities for creativity. After all,
garments can look whatever the designer desires; The
constraints that are usually imposed by the practical side of
the market – or even gravity or logic – are gone.
QUESTIONS?
Thank you for your
attention
☺
SUMMARY
➢ The companies on international marketplace often practise global sourcing, which involves contracting to
purchase goods and services from suppliers worldwide.
➢ Buyer-seller relationship between companies involve working together to provide advantages that benefit
both parties such as lower prices for suppliers, quicker delivery of inventory, improved quality
and reliability, customized product features and more favourable financing terms.
➢ Organizational purchasing decision process of trade operations consists of problem recognition, search,
quality, negotiate, purchase order, invoicing, shipping, remittance payment, performance review.
➢ The main forms of buying situations are new task (judgmental new task, strategic new task), modified rebuy
(causal, routine low priority) and straight rebuy (the simple modified rebuy, the complex modified rebuy).
➢ Companies can use five level of sourcing, e.g. domestic purchasing only, international purchasing only
as needed, international purchasing as part of sourcing strategy, global sourcing strategies integrated across
worldwide locations, global sourcing strategies integrated across worldwide locations and functional groups.
➢ Supplier relationship management and customer relationship management are the key processes for linking
firms across the supply chain and processes.
➢ Supplier selection process consists of these six steps: identify the parts and services to buy, establish the
criteria for selecting suppliers, identify and select suppliers, negotiate the terms of contract, monitor
and control the suppler, evaluate supplier and provide feedback.
➢ The effective tools facilitates the supplier relationship management include using of IT software, principal
supplier key actions matrix, subcontractor evaluation form, subcontracting plan outline.
➢ The legislation is the basis for regulating the conflicts of interest between buyers and sellers in the process of
purchasing. Traders should examine customs policy, custom code, custom tariff, VAT amount, existence of
excise tax and its amount, the need to obtain a certificate of conformity and requirements of the country´s
technical standards. In B2B context can be contracts divided into these types: a simple one-page purchase
order for the sale of goods, an extremely complex thousand-page document for a trade level agreement
between multinational businesses and standardized or unstandardized contracts.
➢ Contract formation consist of pre-contractual phase, contractual phase, ordering and logistic phase,
settlement phase and post-processing phase.
SUMMARY
➢ The receivable can be understood as a factor of competitiveness, while its creation is associated with the sale
to customers on credit (or payment to suppliers in advance – by providing advances).
➢ A trade loan does not bear explicit interest, which may give the impression that it is free of charge, but it is
necessary to take into account the effect it has on the amount of the sale price. The company may also have
other receivables, such as receivables from loans provided or the company's claims for repayment of capital
by shareholders or reimbursement of losses. Claims are therefore generally the rights of an undertaking to
obtain funds or to be paid in kind at a specified time and at a known valuation amount.
➢ The general task of receivables management (or credit management) is to ensure the continued solvency of a
company so that it is able to meet its obligations. Specific tasks of receivables management include
determining whether and to whom to provide business supplier credit, for which the management can use
financial analysis, data from the Commercial Register, specialized commercial databases, or rating agencies
that deal with the evaluation of the solvency of business partners. Other specific tasks include minimizing the
risk of non-payment of receivables, monitoring receivables, collection policy and monitoring the average
amount of receivables.
➢ Inventory management is a very important area of business logistics, especially for trading companies, as
inventories make up 60-80% of the total value of assets (invested capital). The goal of inventory management
is to ensure the continuity of business operations at minimal costs related to the supply process, while finding
a balance between too low inventory levels and too high inventory levels. At the same time, emphasis is
placed on the rationalization and standardization of the process of handling goods and their transport (use of
suitable handling units).
➢ The packaging of goods must fulfil at least a technical, marketing and environmental function. In a way,
reverse logistics is also linked to the ecological function, the aim of which is to ensure the reuse or
valorization of materials in an economically interesting way that is also environmentally friendly.
SUMMARY
➢ International logistics is the process involving planning, implementing, and controlling
the flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from a place of origin
to a place of consumption located in another country.
➢ The final choice of logistics means is influenced by a number of factors related to the
physical relocation of goods. Other factors are based on the provisions of the concluded
purchase contract. The choice can also be influenced by factors such as the nature of the
goods, the method of packaging, the transport distance, climatic conditions, or the
technical and logistical equipment of the carriers.
➢ At the same time, there is a steady increase in the total volume of transported goods,
which further enhances the need to move goods in precisely defined quantities and
deadlines, at affordable prices, with minimal environmental impact on the environment
and adaptation to specific customer needs.
➢ Among the factors that we take into account when choosing a suitable type of transport,
apart from the price, are the following: the length of the transport route, the transported
quantity, the speed of transport, the goods themselves (their type and specific
characteristics).
➢ The modes of transport include sea and river transport, air transport, rail transport, road
transport, combined transport and other types of transport (pipeline, postal, courier).
Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, which you need to know when
deciding on a suitable option for transporting goods.
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