-
Intercultural Communication
Distance learning study materials
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková
Karviná 2024
Subject: Business, marketing, languages.
Key words: Intercultural communication; culture; division of culture; Hofstede; culture
shock, reverse culture shock, verbal and non-verbal interaction;
communication competence; knowledge; essentials skills; communication
techniques; business communication; CV.
Annotation: Students interested in intercultural communication, both full-time and
combined, are the target audience for this study text. It is clear how important
intercultural communication is. Individuals from many nationalities,
cultural groups, and countries have started corresponding, getting
to know one another better, and cooperating far more than in the past.
First, this kind of communication gained traction in real-world settings,
including commerce, politics, diplomacy, tourism, art, culture, sports,
and so forth. The focus of the study text is on cultural nuances that affect
effective client communication as well as professional language used in
spoken and written English communication. This study text is broken up
into 12 chapters that cover various cultural topics.
Author: Ing. Patrik Kajzar, Ph.D.
Mgr. Martina Chylková
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
3
Table of contents
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................5
QUICK OVERVIEW OF STUDY TEXT...........................................................................6
1 SPECIFICS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ......................................7
1.1 Introduction of intercultural communication ........................................................7
1.2 Intercultural communication and its specifics.....................................................10
1.3 Language and culture ..........................................................................................13
1.4 Culture values and their impact on communication in marketing ......................15
2 CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN MARKETING........19
2.1 Introduction of culture dimensions .....................................................................19
2.2 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and practical application in marketing .............20
3 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE ....................................................29
3.1 Culture and organizational culture ......................................................................29
3.2 Cultural and cross-cultural awareness.................................................................33
3.3 National idendity.................................................................................................36
4 DIVISIONS OF CULTURES....................................................................................41
4.1 Division of culture and cultural intelligence.......................................................41
4.2 Divisions of culture according to Hofstede.........................................................45
5 CULTURE SHOCK...................................................................................................50
5.1 Culture shock.......................................................................................................50
5.2 Reverse culture shock..........................................................................................53
6 VERBAL AND NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION ........................................58
6.1 Verbal communication........................................................................................58
6.2 Non – verbal communication..............................................................................63
7 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CULTURES...................................68
7.1 International Business Communication ..............................................................68
7.2 Presentation skills................................................................................................70
7.2.1 Signpost language........................................................................................72
7.3 Telephone skills...................................................................................................73
7.4 Video conferencing .............................................................................................77
7.5 Characteristics of some cultures..........................................................................77
8 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE..........................................................................................81
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
4
8.1 Business etiquette................................................................................................81
8.2 Greetings and Small talk .....................................................................................82
8.3 Characteristics of some cultures..........................................................................86
9 MEETINGS ...............................................................................................................90
9.1 Elements of effective meetings ...........................................................................90
9.2 Agenda ................................................................................................................91
9.3 Chairing and leading discussion..........................................................................92
9.4 Minutes................................................................................................................96
9.5 Characteristics of some cultures..........................................................................96
10 NEGOTIATING ........................................................................................................99
10.1 Types of negotiation ........................................................................................99
10.2 Stages of the negotiation process...................................................................101
10.3 Characteristics of some cultures....................................................................105
11 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – BUSINESS DOCUMENTS...........................109
11.1 Applying for a job..........................................................................................109
11.2 Writing e-mails..............................................................................................113
11.3 Reports...........................................................................................................116
11.4 Complaints.....................................................................................................116
12 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – PRESS RELEASES ...................................121
12.1 Global advertising..........................................................................................122
12.2 Job advertising...............................................................................................124
12.3 Questionnaire.................................................................................................125
THE LIST OF LITERATURE.........................................................................................129
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY TEXT ............................................................................139
OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE ICONS .........................................................................140
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
5
INTRODUCTION
This study text Intercultural Communication is an update of the 2019 study text. This
study text is intended for full-time and part-time students interested in intercultural communication
for all programmes.
Students are recommended first to find out information about icons, abbreviations and
symbols used in the study text. A list of them is available at the end of the text.
Students are provided with so-called distance elements – Questions, Answers, To remem-ber,
Check questions, etc. Checking questions are aimed at practising useful phrases
and vocabulary, For interested persons encourages further searching for information
to be discussed in seminars. There is a Final test available at the end of the chapter to revize
some important facts explained in the chapter.
Authors
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
6
QUICK OVERVIEW OF STUDY TEXT
The submitted study text Intercultural Communication is divided into 12 chapters and supposed
to develop cognition skills needed to understand life in foreign countries. The first six chapters
of the study text Intercultural communication are devoted to the theoretical background,
while the second part of the study text focuses on the practical approach to each topic.
Chapter 1 deals with the issue of intercultural communication. Emphasis is placed on
its specifics as well as on importance of a language and culture, culture values and their
impact on intercultural communication.
Chapter 2 deals with the issue of culture dimensions with an emphasis on Hostede´s
cultural dimensions and their influence on communication in business.
Chapter 3 focuses on business organization and its culture. The chapter also focuses on
the issue of types of culture and national identity.
Chapter 4 explains the division of cultures and cultural intelligence from different
points of view.
Chapter 5 introduces students the issues of culture shock and its impact on intercultural
communication. The chapter also focuses on the issue of reverse culture shock.
Chapter 6 introduces to students in short the verbal and non-verbal communication and
its importance for business communication.
Chapter 7 describes the most efficient ways of business communication between companies.
Chapter 8 sums up what business etiquette is, how important it is in international encounters
with business partners, clients. It guides the students through some important parts
of etiquette.
Chapter 9 emphasizes the significant elements of the most productive way of communication
in business – meetings and looks into some useful phrases.
Chapter 10 pays attemtion to leading successful negotiations in international business
with partners from different cultural background.
Chapter 11 concerns written communication including applying for a job, writing emails,
reports, handling complaints.
Chapter 12 refers to international advertising and creating of a questionnaire.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
7
1 SPECIFICS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter is dedicated to the field of intercultural communication. This chapter also
highlights the importance of intercultural communication and its specifics. In addition, this
chapter also focuses on both language and culture. This chapter must not miss the mention
of cultural values and their relation to communication in marketing.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To define intercultural communication,
• To explain specifics of the intercultural communication,
• To interpret the terms language and culture,
• To name culture values and apply their impact on communication in marketing.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Intercultural communication, specifics of intercultural communication, culture, cultural value,
language, verbal and non-verbal interaction, skills, cross-cultural marketing communication.
1.1 Introduction of intercultural communication
Communication and communication skills are among the most important human abilities.
Communication means the mutual transmission of shared meanings between people,
the exchange of information, communication and understanding. It serves to create, maintain
and cultivate interpersonal relationships. The ability to communicate through speech
is the ability to consciously use language as a complex system of signs and symbols and to
use it in all its forms.
Communication can be divided into verbal and non-verbal. Verbal communication means
verbal communication, i.e. communication processes that are carried out through spoken
or written language. Non-verbal (extra-verbal) communication refers to the totality of
extra-verbal messages that are consciously or unconsciously communicated to others.
Specifics of intercultural communication
8
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
According to Kasalová (2012, p 4-5) there is no general definition of communication.
Individual authors define communication according to its focus. In a broader sense, the
term refers not only to the exchange of information between people, but also to the expression
of exchange of information between living and non-living organisms (human-human,
human-animal, human-nature, human- traffic light, temperature room - thermostatic valve).
According to Vymětal (2008), communication is the process of exchange and transfer
of information between people and in any form manifested any effect, a process of communication,
social intercourse with the exchange of the content of ideas through words, the
two-way process of transmitting and receiving messages from one person to another, the
transmission of different information contents through language, etc.
Communication strengthens or dampens emotions and shapes attitudes. It can provoke,
provoke, initiate - and even silence and inhibit the other in his determination. It can convince
of the truth and credibly spread falsehood (Vybíral, 2009, p. 21).
The ability to understand and communicate in other languages is one of the basic skills
that EU citizens need if they are to participate fully in European society. The act of learning
and speaking other languages encourages the learner to open himself or herself up to other
people and to begin to understand other cultures and outlooks as well as essential skills in
a world menaced by racism and xenophobia (Heinz, 2014).
TO REMEMBER
One research says that we remember things like this:
• 10% of what we hear
• 15% What we see
• 20% What we see and hear at the same time
• 40% What we discuss
• 80% What we directly experience or do
• 90% What we try to teach others
Ability to
un-
derstand
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
9
Communication takes on a new dimension in the clash of different national cultures. The
art of intercultural communication does not only consist in a perfect knowledge of language
and professional terminology.
The term Intercultural Communication can refer to several entities, on the one hand naming
the subjects of the verbal and non-verbal communication process taking place (mostly
spontaneously) in different socio-cultural situations, on the other hand a scientific discipline
dealing with the study of the objective facts of this mode of communication (theoretical
approaches, classifications and types of communication, linguistic and cultural
barriers), and sometimes also practical teaching themes and activities for the training of
intercultural competences (mostly communicative and professionally oriented).
Defining the concept of intercultural communication is not easy. In the world literature,
there is a number of definitions of this concept, which vary from intercultural communication
disciplines to cultures in which this field is cultivated. The subject of study in this field
is thus the communication forms that people, members of different cultural groups, use in
interpersonal contact.
DEFINITION OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural Communication is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately
in intercultural situations (Akdere et al., 2021).
The term Intercultural Communication is appropriately defined by J. Průcha (2010) as
referring to the processes of interaction and communication taking place in various types
of situations in which the communicating partners are members of linguistically and/or
culturally different ethnic, national, racial or religious communities. This communication
is determined by the specificities of the languages, cultures, mentalities and value systems
of the communicating partners.
The importance of intercultural communication is constantly increasing. Globalisation
is putting pressure on intercultural communication. In an international environment, it is
now an absolute necessity to work with people from different cultures and backgrounds, to
deal with clients or suppliers from the other side of the world in international teams. The
more one is able to adapt and adjust to different conditions, the more effective and successful
not only he or she, but also the whole company or organization will be.
Term of IC
Specifics of intercultural communication
10
1.2 Intercultural communication and its specifics
In the work process, as well as throughout one's life, one is in constant contact with other
people. His behaviour towards them is influenced both by factors which have contributed
to the formation of his personality and previous experience and by immediate influences,
i.e. the moment ongoing interaction and communication, and other interpersonal processes
related to these influences.
Individual differences between people are further exacerbated by the fact that different
social positions (for example, occupational positions) tend to be the source and cause of
such differences. These individual differences contribute to
The specificity of the social situations in which people come into contact with each other
in the work process also plays a part in these individual differences. However, culture is
also an equally important determinant, which through the process of socialisation significantly
determines not only the decisive boundaries but also the basic rules of social contact
in the broadest sense (Nový, Schroll-Machl, 2015).
Through intercultural communication, linguistic, psychological and cultural determinants.
People communicate and cooperate with each other, negotiate, get to know each
other across countries, exchange ideas through words, attitudes and national cultural values.
This transaction occurs through verbal and non-verbal communication. However, misuse,
misunderstanding or misinterpretation can lead to serious conflicts and hinder the achievement
of the organisation's objectives. It is therefore important that communication in an
international team is effective and that intercultural differences do not have a negative impact
on the achievement of objectives.
Thanks to the world globalization, the enlargement of the European Union and strong
migration, the issue of intercultural communication is gaining importance. For this reason,
communicative skills are among the indispensable qualities of managers, businessmen, artists
and teachers. In addition to vocational training, training in communication (social, socio-cultural
and communicative competences) is also essential.
Nowadays, we can also encounter the concept of intercultural psychology, which has a
key position in intercultural communication research. It is a field that has a very rich history
abroad, In the Czech environment it is a new field. For example, J. Průcha (2010) defines
it as the scientific study of human behaviour with regard to the ways in which behaviour is
influenced by cultural context.
Over the past few years, there has been an ongoing debate among experts over the definition
of intercultural competence, resulting in many ways of defining it. The term includes
according to different authors, different competences and skills. Also, there are two approaches
- linguists attach more importance to mastery of a foreign language, while sociologically
oriented intercultural scholars focus almost exclusively on intercultural competence.
Importance
of IC
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
11
This corresponds to the many different names (e.g. intercultural communicative competence,
intercultural effectiveness or adaptation) describing very similar concepts.
Intercultural communication competence means the ability to aware of risks of misunderstanding
through differences in speech, behaviours, and body language. It also means
the willingness to modify the person’s speech and behaviours accordingly to the situation.
According to the Dang (2016) is imporatant:
• Respecting people from other cultures.
• Being non-judgmental towards members of other cultures.
• Taking turns appropriately in intercultural conversations.
• Being empathic towards members of other cultures.
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
According to Council of Europe (2022) Intercultural Competence is the ability to understand
and respect each other across all types of cultural barriers.
Intercultural competences refer to the set of knowledge and skills necessary for people
and organisations to act in an intercultural way in diverse societies.
Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)10 on multilevel policies and governance for intercultural
integration (adopted by consensus by the Committee of Ministers on 6 April 2022)
states that “[…] institutions and organisations should develop intercultural competences
and attitudes among their staff, encouraging them to acquire the skills to enable constructive
exchanges, dialogue and co-design based on shared values and goals (Council of
Europe, 2022).
Intercultural competences are abilities to adeptly navigate complex environments marked
by a growing diversity of peoples, cultures and lifestyles, in other terms, abilities to
perform “eff ectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically
and culturally diff erent from oneself“ (UNESCO, 2013).
The primary focus has been on competencies related to speaking and listening, and the
National Communication Association (NCA) notes that developing communication competence
in these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic contexts (Anonymous,
2012) the NCA has defined what students should be able to do in terms of speaking
and listening competencies by the time they graduate from college:
• State ideas clearly.
• Communicate ethically.
• Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
Competence
of IC
Specifics of intercultural communication
12
• Identify their communication goals.
• Select the most appropriate and effective medium for communicating.
• Demonstrate credibility.
• Identify and manage misunderstandings.
• Manage conflict.
• Be open-minded about another’s point of view.
• Listen attentively.
Figure 1: Intercultural communicative competence
Source: Waliński, 2012.
In Byram’s model according to Waliňski (2012) is in Figure 1 above, Intercultural
Communicative Competenceis composed of two closely related areas including communicative
competence, and intercultural competence. The communicative competence consists
of linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, and discourse competence. Intercultural
competence consists of three components ( knowledge, skills and attitudes ) and is
supplemented by five values: (1) intercultural attitudes, (2) knowledge, (3) skills of interpreting
and relating, (4) skills of discovery and interaction, (5) critical cultural awareness.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
13
These five major intercultural competences are strongly interrelated. Byram argues that
“the basis of intercultural competence is in the attitudes of the person interacting with people
of another culture.” Without this basic competence, the other four cannot truly develop.
QUESTIONS
Why do you think it’s important to understand the cultural context of a message when
communicating with others from different cultures?
Insufficient knowledge of the spoken language, often English, is the cause of misunderstanding
and noise. In many cases, partners do not have the same level of language
skills, and so there is an asymmetric structure that creates a superior and subordinate position.
If a linguistically superior person tries to simplify speaking, strengthens the asymmetry
in the relationship, which has an aggravating impact on the communication process. In
important negotiations, like signing contracts, etc., the use of an interpreter is recommended
(Quintanilla and Wahl, 2011).
1.3 Language and culture
Language is a set of symbols shared by a community to communicate meaning and experience
(Jandt, 2013, 161). Language and culture can be separable since it is possible for
a language to express or create, would say, different realities or cultures. In the psychological
perspective, these two are inseparable since an individual carries all the linguistic and
cultural experience within oneself.
Language, the most commonplace of all human possessions, is possibly the most complex
and the most interesting. Since it is an instrument for humans' communications with
each other, the growth and development of their talents, causing creativity, innovation, and
novelty, exchanging and transferring their experiences, and on the whole, for the formation
of society(s). The concern with language is not new. Many of the assumptions, theories and
goals of modern linguistics find their origin in past centuries (Mahadi and Jafari, 2012).
Language has two main aspects - these are verbal production (fluency, expressive ability
to produce language output) and verbal comprehension (receptive ability to understand
spoken and written language input), and language also has several levels. The lowest level
is phonemes, the next level is morphemes, and the highest level is sentence units.
In addition, context has a great influence on the understanding of a sentence and its
production. If we do not know the context, we may not understand a sentence or a longer
speech correctly, even if we have a good command of the language.
Language
Specifics of intercultural communication
14
Language is used not just as a tool for the exchange of information, but as a symbolic
system with the power to create and shape symbolic realities, such as values, perceptions,
identities through discourse. The relation of culture and language is the way they share
human values, realities and behaviours of a social group (Dang, 2016).
One of the central general objectives of intercultural education is to educate for respect
and tolerance towards different cultures or individuals who come from different cultural
background. However, the word culture has been and is commonly used in different, interrelated
meanings.
A programmatically contradictory concept of culture, from which intercultural education
is based, is offered by cultural and social anthropology, a social science that deals
specifically with the problém of culture or the study of man in the context of different
cultures.
DEFINITION OF CULTURE
According to LiveScience (2022) culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear,
how we wear it, our language, marriage, music and is different all over the world.
Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing
language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.
The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining
culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding
that are learned by socialization. Thus, culture can be seen as the growth of a
group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group.
Many countries, such as France, Italy, Germany, the US, India, Russia and China are
noted for their rich cultures, the customs, traditions, music, art and food being a continual
draw for tourists.
QUESTIONS
What are the main cultures of the world?
Give examples.
According to Gibson (2002) the priority of intercultural communication is to ensure that
a person from another cultural environment is not harmed, attacked or misunderstood in
Culture
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
15
the communication process, whether consciously or unconsciously. Cultural sensitivity
helps to overcome the problems that most people have with the understanding of non-verbal
signals from other cultures.
1.4 Culture values and their impact on communication in marke-
ting
Cultural values are formed by a particular community and not individually. Any member
of a given community comes across these values and may assume an individual attitude
towards them. Discovering values and exploring them is a defining characteristic of a free,
thinking, and active individual. In the culture of any society there are values on which there
is a general agreement; they are the basis of its identity; actions of social institutions and
individuals focus upon them; they create a stimulating environment; their implementation
binds society together; they unite what is fragmented and universalize what is individual
and temporary (Dyczewski and Slawik, 2016).
According to Vojtová (2006) cultural values can be characterized as a complex of tangible
and intangible elements arising from the gradual development of settlements, traditions
arising from the character of the place and the place-bound. It is a permanent value that
evolves and complements new elements whose effect can be enriching, neutral or degra-
ding.
Fig. 2: Examples of Cultural Values
Source: https://assignmenthelp4me.com/essay/culture-and-social-behaviour.html
Cultural
values
Specifics of intercultural communication
16
Figure 2 above shows examples of cultural values include respect for elders talking
politery, touching feet, shaking hands etc.
The goal of international marketing communication is to create desirable ideas about the
company, its products and brands so as to stimulate demand, differentiate given product
from the competition, influence existing and potential customers and persuade them about
the suitability of the purchase. The communication strategy may vary depending on the
differences indifferent markets. (Boučková et al., 2003).
Machková (2006) distinguishes three basic concepts of international marketing: export
marketing, global marketing and international marketing management or intercultural marketing.
Intercultural marketing is most showing cultural differences because it works with
more than one culture and measures culture with each other.
DEFINITION OF CROSS-CULTURAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural marketing communication defined by Tian and Borges (2011, p. 114) as
a marketing communication among consumers or customers who’s culture differs from that
of the marketers own culture in at least one fundamental aspect of culture such as language,
religion, social norms and values, education and life style.
The development of any product or service will be dependant on the behavioural attitudes
of the buy consumers. These may influence the development, demand change or impact
on the way in which marketing takes place. The development of many different products
and services can be seen to demonstrate these changes. The way in which a purchase
decision is made can be seen to encompass the different attitudes of a purchaser, and as
such it will impact on the way the product is perceived and the need for companies to satisfy
consumer needs or appeal to their desires (UKEssays, 2018).
The importance of cross-cultural communication creates a network and helps establish
a strong chain both internally and externally. As business is expanding globally, culture is
a concern that affects communication all time. The importance of cross-cultural communication
is there for the following reasons: (Businesscommunicationarticles, 2023)
• To know the global market - There is no border for business now and business
is developing globally. To understand the global customer, a business unit should
have knowledge of the demographic status attitudes, values, and beliefs of different
cultures. This understanding helps win global business.
• Avoiding miscommunication - When people from different cultures interact
then there is a chance of miscommunication due to a difference in language and
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
17
attitude. A proper understanding of different cultures where the business has an
interest can cause effective communication.
• Creating a work environment of equal opportunity - In a multinational organization,
the success of a business depends on the collective effort of people from
different cultures. Each employee needs to get equal treatment here and therefore
understanding various cultures is a pre-requisite for the employer.
• Enriching human resources - If cultural barriers are removed, a business enterprise
can hire skilled people from different parts of the world.
The overall issue of intercultural marketing can be practically expressed as follows: Better
marketing approaches are standardized (globalization) or adapted to local habits, habits
and motives of the consumer (localization)? The first of these two approaches is more economic,
the second more effective (Mooij 2009; Usunier 1996).
QUESTIONS
1) Intercultural Communication is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately
in intercultural situations
a) Yes
b) No
2) Language has:
a) two main aspects
b) for main aspects
c) six main aspects
3) Cross-cultural marketing communication is defined as a marketing communication
among:
a) consumers or customers
b) consumers or companies
c) companies or organizations
Specifics of intercultural communication
18
ANSWERS
1a, 2a, 3a.
OTHER SOURCES
JACKSON, J., 2019. Introducing Language and Intercultural Communication.
Routledge. ISBN 978-1138481619.
Ting-Toomey, S. and L. CHUNG, 2021. Understanding Intercultural Communication.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190297442.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Communication and communication skills are among the most important human abilities.
Communication means the mutual transmission of shared meanings between people,
the exchange of information, communication and understanding. It serves to create, maintain
and cultivate interpersonal relationships. Communication is the process of exchange
and transfer of information between people and in any form manifested any effect, a process
of communication, social intercourse with the exchange of the content of ideas through
words, the two-way process of transmitting and receiving messages from one person to
another, the transmission of different information contents through language, etc.
Intercultural Competence is the ability to understand and respect each other across all
types of cultural barriers. Language, the most commonplace of all human possessions, is
possibly the most complex and the most interesting. Culture is the characteristics and knowledge
of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits,
music and arts. Cultural values are formed by a particular community and not individually.
Any member of a given community comes across these values and may assume an
individual attitude towards them. The goal of international marketing communication is to
create desirable ideas about the company, its products and brands so as to stimulate demand,
differentiate given product from the competition, influence existing and potential
customers and persuade them about the suitability of the purchase.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
19
2 CULTURE DIMENSIONS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN
MARKETING
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter explains students the issue of culture dimensions and their application in
marketing. The chapter also focuses on the issue of Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and
introduces students case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To describe cultural dimension,
• To explain specifics of the Hofstede´s cultural dimensions,
• To show case studies illustrating various aspects of culture dimensions.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Culture dimensions, Hofstede´s cultural dimensions, individualism/collectivism, longterm/short-term
orientation, marketing application, masculinity/femininity, personal preferences,
power distance, restraint/indulgence, uncertainty avoidance.
2.1 Introduction of culture dimensions
The cultural dimensions express the most general level of cultural differences between
countries and highlight those that not only inherently lead to different conceptions of the
basic parameters of life, but also affect in particular the field of work and management.
In the course of life, a person becomes part of several social groups, encounters different
cultural patterns and acquires, according to Hofstede (2007), several levels of mental programming.
Among these we can then include language, the educational system, and the
political system, the military or the media.
According to Lukášová (2004), the interpenetration of individual social systems (the
individual is part of the family, the family is part of the community, the community is part
of the regions, and the regions are part of the States) the individual is able to function within
different cultural systems.
Culture dimensions and their application in marketing
20
CHARACTERSTIC OF CULTURE DIMENSIONS
According to Hofstede (2007) cultural dimensions represent independent preferences
for one state of affairs at the expense of another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals)
from each other.
Human beings are social creatures, which means that each of us is part of a wider society
and culture. There is no doubt that the environment in which we live can greatly influence
us and shape our personality. In order to learn more about the influence of culture on our
daily lives, the Cultural Dimensions Theory is used to do so.
G. Hofstede called culture collective programming of mind. It means that culture involves
not only its visible part related to literature, music, and art, but rather a shared system
of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour (Heinz, 2014).
According to Lukášová (2010), individual nations share and pass on from generation to
generation certain basic beliefs, values, norms and steady patterns of behaviour that determine
the thinking, feelings and behaviour of their members. If people working in organizations
are members of a particular nation, the question is to what extent and how the cultural
characteristics of nations affect the characteristics of organizations and the behaviour
of managers.
Cultural Dimensions Theory attempts to answer the following questions through extensive
research the question of how different cultures, nations and ethnicities differ. A certain
criteria that can be applied to human societies. The most used and best-known framework
for cultural differences is Geert Hofstede´s Cultural Dimensions.
2.2 Hofstede´s cultural dimensions and practical application in
marketing
Psychologist Daniel Levinson and sociologist Alex Inkeles were the first to deal with
cultural theory in a more systematic way in 1954. Based on a study of the literature on
cultural anthropology, they recognized the basic problems that occur in any cultural society:
the relationship to authority, the individual's self-concept (the individual's relationship
to society, perceptions of masculinity and femininity), and ways of dealing with conflict.
In the second half of the 1960s, the Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede was commissioned
by the American multinational company IBM to conduct research on employees working
in several dozen of the organization's offices around the world. A questionnaire survey was
identified as the most appropriate method for data collection. These questionnaires focused
Individual
nations
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
21
on various aspects of people's behaviour in the environment of a large multinational corporation
and their willingness to work with other employees [2].
This survey was conducted between 1967 and 1973 and Hofstede confirmed the hypothesis
that Inkeles and Levinson had previously come up with. Based on the research, he
identified four dimensions of culture that are measurable in relation to other cultures. He
considered the four main dimensions to be:
CULTURE DIMENSION OF G. HOFSTEDE
• Power distance (PDI)
• Individualism vs Collectivism (IDV)
• Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS)
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)
As further research in this area continued, two more dimensions were later added:
• Long-term vs. short-term orientation (LTO)
• Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR)
POWER DISTANCE (PDI)
This dimension expresses the extent to which the less powerful members of society accept
that power in society is unequally distributed. People in societies showing a high degree
of distance from power accept a hierarchical arrangement in which everyone has a
place and which needs no further justification. In cultures with large power distance, fixed
boundaries between social classes are characteristic and inequalities are considered natural.
In cultures with low power distance, the emphasis is on equality, Here, political power is
based more on practical considerations than on tradition. In these societies, the prevailing
view is that politics and religion must be separated and that the use of power must be subject
to the rule of law. Inequality is considered undesirable in principle, and while it is inevitable,
it should be minimized by political means, see Fig.:3.
Hofstede
Culture dimensions and their application in marketing
22
DEFINITION OF HOFSTEDE POWER DISTANCE
Hofstede (2007) defines the power distance dimension as the extent to which less powerful
members of a country's institutions and organizations assume and accept that power is
distributed unequally.
Fig. 3: Power distance
Source: https://medium.com/design-kisk/teorie-kulturn%C3%ADch-dimenz%C3%AD-podle-geerta-hof-
stedeho-e33e694beb81
According to Markgraf (2019) cultures with a high power, distance have strong hierarchies
and powerful leaders. Decisions are often made by heads of families and top managers
rather than through discussion and teamwork. Your marketing in such countries has to appeal
to the leadership by emphasizing how products create benefits for the whole family or
company, making their leadership more successful. For low power distance countries, you
have to reach a broad range of ordinary people or workers who will discuss the products
and come to a consensus. The benefits you promote have to make their tasks easier.
For example, Germany has a 35 on the cultural scale of Hofstede’s analysis. Compared
to Arab countries where the power distance is very high (80) and Austria where it very low
(11), Germany is somewhat in the middle. Germany does not have a large gap between the
wealthy and the poor, but have a strong belief in equality for each citizen. Germans have
the opportunity to rise in society.
On the other hand, the power distance in the United States scores a 40 on the cultural
scale. The United States exhibits a more unequal distribution of wealth compared to German
society. As the years go by it seems that the distance between the ‘have’ and ‘havenots’
grows larger and larger. More information about PDI you can find here: https://clear-
lycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/power-distance-index/
PDI
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
23
INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM (IDV)
According to the website Business-to-you.com (2019) the high side of this dimension,
called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in
which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.
Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society
in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to
look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society’s position on this dimension
is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “we.” The USA
is considered as one of the most individualistic countries in the world.
Fig. 4: Individualism vs Collectivism
Source: https://medium.com/design-kisk/teorie-kulturn%C3%ADch-dimenz%C3%AD-podle-geerta-hof-
stedeho-e33e694beb81
DEFINITION OF HOFSTEDE INDIVIDUALISM VS COLLECTIVISM
According to Hofstede (1991), individualism is characteristic of those countries where
relations between individuals are free: everyone is expected to take care of themselves and
their immediate family. Collectivism, as an opposite of individualism, is inherent in
communities where people are integrated from birth into strong and cohesive groups, providing
individuals with protection as a counterpart to loyalty.
IDV
Culture dimensions and their application in marketing
24
Individualism is the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which
individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which
the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and
his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from
birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with
uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty.
For example, Germany can be considered as individualistic with a relatively high score
(67) on the scale of Hofstede compared to a country like Guatemala where they have strong
collectivism (6 on the scale). More information about Individualism you can find here:
https://clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/individualism/
MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY (MAS)
The third dimension is related to whether the influence of values associated with the
male or female gender prevails in a given society. Which behaviours and activities are considered
'masculine' or 'feminine' differ not only in traditional but also in modern societies.
These gender roles are a fixed part of every society.
Based on Hofstede's research, a Masculinity Index Score (MAS) was determined for all
countries represented. The countries that scored closest to the feminine pole on the MAS
index were Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands and Denmark. In contrast, some Latin American
(Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador) and Asian (Japan, China, Philippines)
countries were closest to the masculine pole (Brychtová, 2021).
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE (UAI)
Avoidance of uncertainty is defined by Hofstede (1991) as "the extent to which members
of the culture feel threatened by uncertain and unknown situations. Feelings of arousal arising
in a high degree of avoidance of uncertainty have no particular cause and rational
roots. They are acquired and taught as a cultural heritage of society, empowered through
basic institutions, ie family, school, state.
According to Hofstede, this dimension is as "the degree to which members of a given
culture feel threatened by uncertainty or unfamiliar situations". It was defined based on
questions regarding job stress, attitudes towards compliance, and interest in staying in the
work organization for a long period of time, and respondents' answers indicated their level
of anxiety in relation to an uncertain future.
Countries whose culture is characterised by high an index of uncertainty avoidance, are
characterised by a multitude of detailed laws, ordinances and regulations that are strictly
enforced. In these conservative ideas often prevail, there is a greater resistance to innovation
and new ideas, and a preference for traditional gender roles. Expand There is also a
lower tolerance for young people and some of their expressions, which not fully in line
MAS
UAI
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
25
with the established and desired culture. Excessive amounts of of regulations, decrees and
laws is a breeding ground and a basis for bureaucracy. In the in countries with a higher
uncertainty avoidance index, a lower sense of satisfaction with living and working conditi-
ons.
On the ohter hands for countries with a low uncertainty avoidance index, uncertainty is
considered as a normal part of life and change is commonly accepted. Often they are seen
as challenges and opportunities. Tolerance of different views prevails, those are respected
but cannot be imposed on others. Opposition to opinions to the other person's views does
not prevent good personal relations with each other (Světlík, 2004). Cultures that don't try
to avoid ambiguity accept lifestyle promotions, generalizations about your products, implied
benefits and references to positive change (Markgraf, 2019).
LONG-TERM VERSUS SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION (LTO)
According to Brychtová (2021) this dimension focuses on the ability to plan for the
distant future. Signs of a long-term orientation are, for example, targeting future results,
long-term investments; in the case of a short-term orientation, one can talk about a preference
for immediate results and fulfilling commitments. According to Hofstede, longterm
oriented companies are characterized by anticipation of the most important events
in the future, adaptation of people to circumstances, judging the bad and the good according
to the current situation, efforts to learn from others, perseverance or competitiveness of
students and employees.
East Asian countries - China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and Vietnam clearly
dominate the top of the LTO dimension index as countries with a long-term orientation.
European countries occupy positions in the middle of the table and English-speaking
countries score on the short-term orientation side.
Companies that score low on this dimension prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions
and norms, while viewing social change with suspicion. In contrast, those with a high culture
score take a more pragmatic approach. In particular, they support austerity and the
pursuit of modern education as a way of preparing for the future. In the business context,
this dimension is referred to as short-term versus long-term (Janša, 2022).
Your marketing has to take such orientations into account by fitting promotions into
traditional structures for markets with high long term orientation scores and emphasizing
short term benefits for low-scoring markets (Markgraf, 2019).
INDULGENCE VERSUS RESTRAINT (IVR)
Hofstede added the most recent dimension of culture to the theory in 2010 in collaboration
with Bulgarian linguist Michael Minkov. An indulgent society that allows for the re-
LTO
IVR
Culture dimensions and their application in marketing
26
latively free satisfaction of basic and natural human urges related to enjoying life and having
fun. A restrained society is a society that suppresses and regulates the satisfaction of
needs through strict social norms (Janša, 2022).
In general, cultures in Asia, Muslim countries and Eastern European countries are more
restrained, while indulgent societies can be found in North and South America, Western
Europe and selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Brychtová, 2021).
Janša (2022) also writes, that the six-dimensional model is very useful in the context of
international marketing because it defines national values not only in a business context but
in general. These considerations also apply in the context of international management and
cross-cultural leadership. When it is valid that decisions taken must be based on the customs
and values of the country. It also finds application in international negotiations when the
communication style, expectations, order of issue and objectives change according to the
negotiators' countries of origin. If applied correctly, an understanding of cultural dimensions
should increase the success of negotiations and reduce frustration and conflict. Hofstede's
model provides insight into other cultures. In fact, cross-cultural communication
requires an awareness of cultural differences because what may be considered perfectly
acceptable and natural in one country may be too confusing or even highly offensive in
another.
CASE STUDY
Use the website https://clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/powerdistance-index/
to compare the results of the Czech Republic ( or other selected country)
with other countries in the Hofstede Cultural Dimensions survey.
QUESTIONS
1.) Cultural Dimensions Theory attempts to answer the following questions through extensive
research the question of how different
a) cultures, nations and ethnicities differ
b) cultures and ethnicities differ
c) nation and cultures differ
2) Long-term versus short-term orientation is:
a) the degree to which members of a given culture feel threatened by uncertainty or
unfamiliar situations
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
27
b) dimension as the extent to which less powerful members of a country's institutions
and organizations assume and accept that power is distributed unequally.
c) ) dimension focuses on the ability to plan for the distant future.
3.) Abbreviation MAS in Hofstede´s cultural dimension means:
a) Indulgence versus Restraint
b) Masculinity versus femininity
c) Individualism versus collectivism
ANSWERS
1a, 2c, 3b.
OTHER SOURCES
HOFSTEDE, G., 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London,
UK: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-707474-2.
HOFSTEDE, G.and G. J. HOFSTEDE., 2007. Kultury a organizace: software lidské
mysli: spolupráce mezi kulturami a její důležitost pro přežití. Praha: Linde. ISBN 978-80-
86131-70-2.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The cultural dimensions express the most general level of cultural differences between
countries and highlight those that not only inherently lead to different conceptions of the
basic parameters of life, but also affect in particular the field of work and management. G.
Hofstede called culture collective programming of mind. It means that culture involves not
only its visible part related to literature, music, and art, but rather a shared system of attitudes,
beliefs, values, and behaviour. Cultural Dimensions Theory attempts to answer the
following questions through extensive research the question of how different cultures, nations
and ethnicities differ. A certain criteria that can be applied to human societies. The
most used and best-known framework for cultural differences is Geert Hofstede´s Cultural
Dimensions.
Hofstede defines the power distance dimension as the extent to which less powerful
members of a country's institutions and organizations assume and accept that power is distributed
unequally. Individualism is characteristic of those countries where relations
Culture dimensions and their application in marketing
28
between individuals are free: everyone is expected to take care of themselves and their
immediate family. Collectivism, as an opposite of individualism, is inherent in communities
where people are integrated from birth into strong and cohesive groups, providing
individuals with protection as a counterpart to loyalty. The third dimension is related to
whether the influence of values associated with the male or female gender prevails in a
given society. Which behaviours and activities are considered 'masculine' or 'feminine' differ
not only in traditional but also in modern societies. Avoidance of uncertainty is defined
by Hofstede as the extent to which members of the culture feel threatened by uncertain and
unknown situations. Dimension Long-term/Short-term Orientationm focuses on the ability
to plan for the distant future. Signs of a long-term orientation are, for example, targeting
future results, long-term investments; in the case of a short-term orientation, one can talk
about a preference for immediate results and fulfilling commitments. An indulgent society
that allows for the relatively free satisfaction of basic and natural human urges related to
enjoying life and having fun. A restrained society is a society that suppresses and regulates
the satisfaction of needs through strict social norms.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
29
3 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION AND CULTURE
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the scope of culture and cultural and cross-cultural
awareness. The chapter also focuses on the issue of types of culture and national identity
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To define culture,
• To explain various definition of culture,
• To describe specifics selected of cultures,
• To specify national identity.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Culture, organizational culture, intercultural management, popular culture, subcultur,
national culture, cultural and cross-cultural awareness, Eastern culture, Latin culture, Middle
Eastern culture, national identity, organizational structures, popular culture, subculture,
types of culture, Western culture.
3.1 Culture and organizational culture
Culture is a term used to define the customs, achievements, values, norms and general
beliefs of a certain group of individuals (TriNet Team, 2021).
According to other definition, culture is: Everything people have, what they think, what
they do, and what they deal with as members of a particular society. Culture is learned
behaviour that is passed from generation to generation, and it is never an individual it may
seem, but a set of elements. This learned behaviour is shared by almost everyone in the
society for which culture is valid.
Culture is consistent, observable patterns of behavior in organizations. Aristotle said,
“We are what we repeatedly do.” This view elevates repeated behavior or habits as the core
of culture and deemphasizes what people feel, think or believe. It also focuses our attention
Culture
Business organization and culture
30
on the forces that shape behavior in organization. Culture is powerfully shaped by incentives.
The best predictor of what people will do is what they are incentivized to do. By incentives,
we mean here the full set of incentives — monetary rewards, non-monetary rewards
such as status, recognition and advancement, and sanctions — to which members of
the organization are subject. (Watkins, 2013).
According to Průcha (2010, p. 45), the word culture represents a sum of material and
spiritual values created by mankind. Culture on the one hand as the material outcomes of
human activity (where we rank the products of human activity), and on the other, the spiritual
creations of people (for example morality, different customs and art, etc.)
Culture is a process of “sense-making” in organizations. Sense-making has been defined
as “a collaborative process of creating shared awareness and understanding out of different
individuals’ perspectives and varied interests.” Note that this moves the definition of culture
beyond patterns of behavior into the realm of jointly-held beliefs and interpretations
about “what is.” It says that a crucial purpose of culture is to help orient its members to
“reality” in ways that provide a basis for alignment of purpose and shared action (Watkins,
2013)
Organizational culture defines the environment for everything that happens within a
company. It’s the spoken and unspoken behaviors and mindsets that define how your
business functions on a day-to-day basis. It also codifies what it’s like for employees to
work there.
Organizational culture includes the mission and objectives along with values, leadership
and employee expectations, structured performance management and overall engagement
levels. By building a strong culture, businesses can provide consistency and direction,
guide decisions and actions, fuel the workforce and help reach their potential.
While organizational culture is an integral part of a business, it’s not always visible to
long-term employees. It blends into the daily routine and becomes second nature. Regardless
of whether you’ve just joined the company and you are overwhelmed with new routines
or you’re a seasoned employee who no longer notices the fast-paced environment
around you, organizational culture continues to exist. The longer you’re at a business, the
more it becomes ingrained into who you are (TriNet Team, 2021).
Organizational culture is not static. It continuously evolves both through deliberate organizational
development interventions and cultural transformation process, as well as or-
ganically.
Culture is vital to the overall success of organizations. A strong organizational culture
can help increase net profit by as much as 85% over a five-year period. What’s more, organizations
with thriving cultures and strong workplace communities experience: (Gardner,
2023)
• 66% less employee burnout
Organizational
cul-
ture
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
31
• 63% longer employee tenure
• 456% higher odds of perceived inclusion
Groysberg, Lee, Price, and Cheng identified the following additional organizational cultures
in their research published in Harvard Business Review: (Gardner, 2023).
• Purpose culture – Company leaders and employees share altruistic values of
changing the world and ensuring global resources are shared with those who live
the margins.
• Learning organizational culture – Focuses on research, innovation, creativity,
learning and development.
• Enjoyment organizational culture – Having fun and a sense of humor is what
defines this culture.
• Results organizational culture – Characterized by meeting targets, achieving
goals, and is performance-driven.
• Authority organizational culture – Is defined by strong leadership and confident
employees. It is a competitive working environment where employees strive
to be the best in their field.
• Safety organizational culture – May be risk-averse where leaders thrive on
fostering safety through planning and taking calculated or little risk and doing
what has worked in the past.
• Order organizational culture – Is usually defined by rules, procedures and
where employees have very defined roles.
• Caring organization culture – Will be characterized by an environment that
cares for its employees and where there may be strong engagement and loyalty.
POP CULTURE, SUB CULTURE AND NATIONAL CULTURE
Popular culture (commonly called pop culture) is a set of ideas, thoughts, insights,
attitudes, memes, impressions, and other phenomena that are considered to be the most
distinct parts of mainstream culture of a particular culture, from the beginning to the middle
20th century mainly western culture, from the end of the 20th century to the present global
culture.
A subculture is a small group with specific cultural features that distinguish it from the
majority culture. Although subculture carries different features within lifestyle, behaviour,
values, and standards, it is an integral part of this majority culture. The term subculture is
most often associated with youth. This part of the population tends to be different from the
Popular
culture
Subculture
Business organization and culture
32
established and prevalent during adolescence. He expresses his attitude with visible subcultural
elements. For example (tramping, hip hop, hippies, skate, etc.)
The content of the national culture determines especially the tendencies in the formation
and selection of organizational structures, the degree of accentuation of individual managerial
functions, the style of management and the way of decision making in the organization,
as well as the ideas of the employees about the role of the manager in the organi-
zation.
Researchers who attempt to investigate the content of national cultures of individual
countries in relation to management generally base their studies on an important finding of
social anthropologists: within each social unit, people must solve the same basic problems
if they are to maintain the existence of that unit. The content of these problems is universal,
but the way they are solved is specific within the community. This is what distinguishes
different cultures from each other (Hofstede, 1991)
There are five categories of problems,which are universal for all nations: (Růžena, 2010)
• The nature of man (Is man basically good or bad?);
• relationship to nature (Should man submit to nature, live in harmony with it, or
should he control it?);
• relationship to time (What is important and what should we focus on - the past,
the present or the future?)
• the nature of human activity (Should one's orientation be to live and experience,
to achieve and accomplish something, or to develop and become something?)
• the relationship of the individual to other people (Should one be independent of
society and let one's personal goals dominate, or should one be primarily oriented
towards goals and harmony within the group?)
Individual nations share and pass on from generation to generation certain basic beliefs,
values, norms and steady patterns of behaviour that determine the thinking, feelings, and
behaviour of their members.
It is necessary to briefly characterize selected cultures of continents and major geopolitical
regions for successful organization management in individual regions of the world:
Ferguson (2014), Zimmermann (2017), LiveScience, 2022.
1. Western culture - The term "Western culture" has come to define the culture of European
countries as well as those that have been heavily influenced by European immigration,
such as the United States, according to Khan University. Western culture has its roots
in the Classical Period of the Greco-Roman era (the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.) and the
rise of Christianity in the 14th century. Other drivers of Western culture include Latin,
National
culture
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
33
Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic ethnic and linguistic groups2. Eastern culture generally
refers to the societal norms of countries in Far East Asia (including China, Japan, Vietnam,
North Korea, and South Korea) and the Indian subcontinent.
3. Latin Culture - Many of the Spanish-speaking nations are considered part of the
Latin culture, while the geographic region is widespread. Latin America is typically defined
as those parts of the Central America, South America and Mexico where Spanish or
Portuguese are the dominant languages.
4. Middle Eastern culture - is the designation for the eastern Mediterranean region and,
where appropriate, the adjacent areas. The concept emerged from a European perspective
as opposed to the Far East. This area, where the three continents meet, is the place, where
the oldest human civilization originated, and at the same time, it is the site of the three
world monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The Middle East region is
considered one of the cradles of our civilization and culture.
5. African culture - African culture is diverse and varied, given the diversity of ethnic
groups living in Africa. Contemporary African culture is influenced by both internal and
external influences. Africa has a long tradition in the production of art objects, dating back
to antiquity. Like every other, African culture has built a myriad of myths, legends and
folklore.
DON’T FORGET TO REST
It's time for a short break. After the break, we'll focus on cultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
3.2 Cultural and cross-cultural awareness
Intercultural management explains the behaviour of people in organizations around
the world and shows people how to work in organizations with employees and client populations
from many different cultures. Intercultural management is currently a dynamically
developing "science" area and Geert Hofstede took the first steps in this field.
Intercultural management deals primarily with the management of human resources in
multinational companies. Human factor is the most limiting factor in applying global strategies.
Therefore, a lot of attention should be paid to human resources management in multinationals,
especially intercultural management. The subject of his interest is the issue of
human resources management with respect to the cultural environment of employees and
the creation of an appropriate corporate culture that would suit all individuals working in
the organization. These are, above all, compromises and the process of adaptation.
Intercultural
ma-
nagement
Business organization and culture
34
According to Mateiciuc (2009) a key factor for intercultural management is the understanding
of cultural contexts in organizational conception, processes and management.
The purpose is not to eliminate the differences in intercultural interactions, but on the contrary,
respecting and achieving common goals without regardless of the heterogeneity of
procedures, negotiation or thinking.
To manage a company in an intercultural environment, the manager should have some
specific knowledge and skills. Skill is defined as the ability to demonstrate a sequence of
measures and solutions, which lead to the goal. The goal of intercultural skills of a manager
is the ability to adapt to a culture other than one's own. (Mead and Andrews, 2009).
The importance of cultural awareness is growing with time. Cultural awareness means
understanding the dynamic values and beliefs of different cultures. For better opportunities,
understanding and respecting various cultures are necessary. By doing so, people
from different backgrounds can work together quickly. Lack of cultural awareness may
mislead crucial decisions. Globalization has led to a vast impact on the expansion of
businesses worldwide.
Cross-cultural competence refers to your ability to understand people from different
cultures and engage with them effectively. And not just people from the one culture that
you’ve studied for years. Having cross-cultural competence means you can be effective in
your interactions with people from most any culture. Being able to communicate and work
with people across cultures is becoming more important all the time. People are traveling,
reaching out, and mixing with different others like never before. They do it for fun, but
they also do it for work. In all cases, success requires developing a relationship. And doing
this means bridging a cultural divide (Rasmussen, 2021)
CULTURAL AWARENESS
Cultural awareness (Tesfaye, 2016) is making proper responses to behaviours and
norms exhibited by people from outside of one’s own culture. It is foundation of communication
and it involves the ability of standing back from ourselves and becoming aware of
our cultural values, beliefs, and perceptions.
According to Rasmussen (2021) and their colleagues identified 12 core aspects of crosscultural
competence. These competencies were frequently found in the thought process of
the experts. They are listed here as a set of principles that can help you be more effective
on your next sojourn:
1. Stay focused on your goals: If you’re overseas for work, then building intercultural
relationships is not just for fun. Building relationships will help you get
your work done.
Cultural
awareness
Cross-cultural
com-
petence
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
35
2. Understand the culture within yourself: Keep aware of the fact that you see
the world in a particular way because of your own background, personal history,
and culture.
3. Manage your attitudes towards the culture: You don’t always have to love
the culture. But you do have to keep check on your reactions to values and
customs that are different from your own. The first two principles can also help
you manage your attitudes.
4. Direct your learning of the culture: Don’t expect a book or training course to
hand you the answers. Try to make sense of the culture for yourself, using the
information you come across as clues.
5. Develop reliable information sources: Find two or three locals to get answers
from about the culture. Build the relationships so you feel comfortable asking
about most anything. Check with more than one and compare their answers in
your head.
6. Learn about the new culture efficiently: You can’t learn everything about the
culture before your trip. It’s unrealistic. Focus on learning a few things that fit
your interests, and use those to make connections and learn more while you are
abroad.
7. Cope with cultural surprises: No matter how much you prepare in advance,
you will find yourself faced with people acting in ways that you find puzzling.
When you do, try to find out why. Doing so will often lead to new insights.
8. Formulate cultural explanations of behavior: Routinely try to explain to
yourself why people act as they do in this culture, differently from your own.
Using things you know about the culture to explain behavior will help you build
a deeper understanding of the culture overall.
9. Take a cultural perspective: Try to see things from the point of view of the
people from the other culture. By taking a cultural perspective, you may create
a whole new understanding of what’s going on around you.
10. Plan cross-cultural communication: Think ahead of time about what you have
to say and how you want the other person to perceive you. Use what you know
about the culture to figure out the best way to get that across.
11. Control how you present yourself: Be deliberate about how you present and
express yourself. Sometimes you’ll be most effective if you’re just yourself.
Other times you have to adapt how you present yourself to the culture you are in
to be most effective.
Business organization and culture
36
12. Reflect and seek feedback: Continue to reflect on and learn from your interactions
and experiences after they occur. After an interaction you can think about
whether you got the messages across you intended
Cultural awareness has become one of the most important communication skills. Respect
and awareness are essential when you are working with people from different backgrounds
as every individual. To build up a stable and trustful business relationship it
requires culturally sensitive knowledge. Intercultural learning takes place mainly through
making your own experiences. What everybody around the world has in common is the
need to be respected and valued, to be listened to and to be given serious consideration.
Ask yourself questions regarding your own expectations on teamwork while working with
other cultures. Working within international and virtual teams means that everybody has to
leave their domestic comfort zones (Baluchová, 2021).
3.3 National idendity
The nation is the highest type of ethnic group. From the original ethnic group, then nationalities
and then peoples developed. Most definitions are based on the common features
of connecting people to the community. These characters are primarily culture, tradition,
common language, mentality, customs and traditions. They are often assigned two more
features - territories and functioning self-governments.
NATION AND ITS DIMENSIONS
Lněnička (2001) writes that the nation has 5 dimensions: psychological, cultural, territorial,
political and historical and has defined 4 model types of nations:
• European Type - a priority Factor - language, culture and common historical development
in a certain time period. All European nations can be included in this group.
• American type - a priority factor - culture and language that came from Europe and
adapted to local conditions. An important role is played by historical affiliation, skin
colour and religion.
• Asian type - a priority factor - country, language and often also religion and historical
development.
• African type - the least developed and most multiethnic, which was caused by decolonization
of the continent and fragmentation into small states.
Concept of the nation according to the Czech historian Miroslav Hroch has existed since
the ancient Middle Ages and has been continuously moving to modern languages, with the
meaning of the term changing, not only in terms of time but also in the context of the
transition between languages - in England the concept of the nation was closely linked with
National
identity
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
37
the notion of the state, in Germany the translation of the term Volk was more related to
common customs, language and origin, but here too, the notion of the meaning of the term
changed over the years. The common root of the word nation is Latin natio (Zpěvák, 2017).
Vlachová and Řeháková (2004) emphasize that the topic of national identity is one of
the most important in contemporary social sciences research topics. The notion of national
identity is today not only frequently discussed and centered, but also a complicated concept.
Scientists who deal with this topic often discuss both the theoretical content of the concept
of "national identity" and the possibilities of its empiricism. As far as the theoretical definition
is concerned, national identities are one of the collective social identities. It can be
defined as the positive relationship of an individual to his nation.
Another definition is according Zpěvák (2017). National identity refers to the sense of
belonging one has to a state or a nation, or a sense of solidarity one feels with a particular
group without regard to one's actual citizenship status. This is not a trait with which people
are born; rather, experiences from the common waystations of people's lives build their
sense of national identity.
Fig. 5: National identity
Source: https://medium.com/@medinous/alternative-media-and-national-identity-82aded50e70e
According to D'ávila (2018) National identity is composed by many different ethnic
groups which are often distributed through different communities and even different nations.
This means that a nation-state should be considered a multi-nation state instead of
forcing a “national” unity through integration policies and strict rules on immigrations, for
example, see above Fig.:5.
Business organization and culture
38
National identity is a phenomenon which must be analysed at the three levels: Haller
and Ressler (2006)
• The level of the individual person - nationalism is often considered as a concomitant
of modernization.
• The political system - the political-administrative unity of a state cannot exist
as such alone, but must represent also a kind of “cultural community”. Only in
this case, a satisfying level of mutual trust and internal communication can take
place between governments and people and between the members of a nation.
• The ideological level - this aspect of the modern state contains the idea of a
specific historical mission of a nation, a certain interpretation of its past actions
and experiences, of its territorial anchoring and cultural uniqueness, a legitimation
of its mission for the future.
CASE STUDY
There are many models illustrating culture, e.g. an iceberg model showing the tangible
expressions of culture above the surface of the water and the underlying attitudes and values
below the surface, a tree model with its roots providing the image of the historical origins
and other hidden issues, and an onion model with its four different layers of culture which
might affect an individual´s profil-meanings, beliefs, attitudes, and values.
Discussion question:
✓ Which types of culture do you think have the biggest influence on a person´s
behaviour-corporate, gender, age, education, religious, class, etc. culture?
QUESTIONS
1.) Subculture is:
a) a set of ideas, thoughts, insights, attitudes, memes, impressions, and other phe-
nomena
b) a small group with specific cultural features that distinguish it from the majority
culture.
c) horizontal and diagonal structure
2.) According to Rasmussen (2021) and their colleagues identified…..core aspects of crosscultural
competence.
a) 8
b) 12
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
39
c) 10
3.) The nation has 5 dimensions: psychological, cultural, territorial, political and
a) historical
b) personal
c) regional
ANSWERS
1b, 2b, 3a.
OTHER SOURCES
UTLEY, D. Culture for the Masses. Modern English Teacher, October 2001, Vol.10/4,
pp.49-53, Pearson Education Ltd., ISSN 0308-058.
MEAD, R. and T. G. ANDREWS, 2009. International Management: Culture and
Beyond. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-405-17399-5.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Culture is a process of „sense-making” in organizations. Sense-making has been defined
as a collaborative process of creating shared awareness and understanding out of different
individuals’ perspectives and varied interests. Organizational culture defines the environment
for everything that happens within a company. It’s the spoken and unspoken behaviors
and mindsets that define how your business functions on a day-to-day basis. It also
codifies what it’s like for employees to work there. Popular culture is a set of ideas, thoughts,
insights, attitudes, memes, impressions, and other phenomena that are considered to
be the most distinct parts of mainstream culture of a particular culture, from the beginning
to the middle 20th century mainly western culture, from the end of the 20th century to the
present global culture. A subculture is a small group with specific cultural features that
distinguish it from the majority culture. The content of the national culture determines especially
the tendencies in the formation and selection of organizational structures, the degree
of accentuation of individual managerial functions, the style of management and the way
of decision making in the organization, as well as the ideas of the employees about the role
of the manager in the organization.
Business organization and culture
40
Intercultural management deals primarily with the management of human resources in
multinational companies. Human factor is the most limiting factor in applying global strategies.
Cross-cultural competence refers to your ability to understand people from different
cultures and engage with them effectively. And not just people from the one culture that
you’ve studied for years. Having cross-cultural competence means you can be effective in
your interactions with people from most any culture. The nation is the highest type of ethnic
group. From the original ethnic group, then nationalities and then peoples developed. Most
definitions are based on the common features of connecting people to the community.
These characters are primarily culture, tradition, common language, mentality, customs and
traditions.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
41
4 DIVISIONS OF CULTURES
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter focuses on the issue of the division of culture and cultural intelligence. In
addition, the focus will be on Hofstede's cultural dimension.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To explain division of cultures,
• To define cultural intelligence,
• To describe division of cultures according to Hofstede,
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Cultural intelligence, Division of cultures, material culture, intangible culture, Hofstede
4.1 Division of culture and cultural intelligence
Culture is divided into material and intangible (spiritual):
• Material culture - products of human activity, artifacts.
• Intangible culture - rules, standards, taboos, language, speech, gestures, etc.
According to Štěpař (2012) we can distinguish 2 approaches:
1. Culture is a universal human phenomenon, specifically human activity, which is
not owned by other biological forms of life.
2. Culture is perceived and studied as a special way of life different groups of people.
Culture therefore includes everything that man does not produce, but:
• He must learn to become a useful member of his society.
• What he usually does not make, but he takes over from the elders.
Division of
culture
Divisions of cultures
42
• What is more of a collective and often anonymous, staged work of many generations.
• What is being maintained by people taking care of it and caring for it.
• What the community combines and at the same time distinguishes itself from others.
A cultural divide can have significant impact on ninternational operations on global organizations
that require communication between people from different cultures.
Commonly, ignorance of the cultural differences such as social norms and taboos may lead
to communication failure within the organization (Prentice and Miller, 2001).
The various characteristics of culture are as follows: (Bhasin, 2020)
1. Culture is abstract - It is not possible to see culture, but it can be glimpsed through
human behaviour in a regular or patterned fashion. It exists in the habits and minds of
individuals and is often referred to as a specific way of thinking and doing things.
2. Culture is learned behaviour - It is a fact that most of our behaviour is learned
although there are many things we pick up unconsciously. This is why the terms conscious
and unconscious learning is used to differentiate between the learning proces-
ses.
3. Culture includes values and attitude - It is a misconception that attitude, values
and options of people are their own. It is a fact that these things we pick up unconsciously
as part of our culture
4. Culture is shared - People shares different aspects of culture unequally.
5. Culture includes material objects - Human beings modify the form of an object
and change it to suit their needs, for instance, it cuts the tree and uses the wood to make
furniture for his comfort
6. Culture is pervasive - It implies that culture touches cultural norms inspire all the
aspects of our lives as both emotional and relational actions to a great extent
7. Culture is idealistic - It represents the norms and ideals of a group and includes
social, artistic and intellectual ideas which the members strive to uphold
8. Culture is transmissive - An essential fact about culture is that it is passed from
one generation to the next and thus is called transmissive. With the help of language,
imitation and instruction, it becomes possible for this generation to understand the intricacies
of the culture from the earlier generation.
9. Culture is transmitted - Culture is passed and learned from one to another person.
In most cases, it is handed down by the elders and even by contemporaries in some
cases. Much of the learning process is accidental or unintentional.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
43
10. Culture varies from society to society The culture of every society is unique and
will vary from another society. It is a fact that cultural elements like beliefs, values,
morals and traditions are not uniform so will vary
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Among the twenty-first century skills that are frequently talked about are the ability to
adapt constantly to different people from diverse cultures and the ability to manage the
interconnectedness of today’s world. The global workplace requires individuals to be sensitive
to different cultures, to interact appropriately with people from different cultures, and
to analyze new cultures as they are encountered. To do all this, individuals, whether they
are at home or abroad, need cultural intelligence.
Cultural intelligence is a valuable skill in today's globalized world, where individuals
and organizations often interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Developing
and honing your cultural intelligence can lead to more effective and harmonious intercultural
communication and relationships.
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Cultural intelligence (CQ) is a concept that refers to an individual's ability to understand
and effectively interact with people from different cultural backgrounds. In the context of
intercultural communication, cultural intelligence plays a crucial role in facilitating
effective communication and building positive relationships between individuals or groups
from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Here are some key aspects of cultural intelligence in intercultural communication:
1. Cultural Knowledge: Cultural intelligence begins with a foundational understanding
of various cultures, including their customs, traditions, values, norms, and
communication styles. It's important to research and educate oneself about the cultural
backgrounds of the people you will be communicating with.
2. Cultural Awareness: Cultural intelligence involves being aware of your own cultural
biases, assumptions, and stereotypes. Recognizing your own cultural perspective
is essential for avoiding misunderstandings and being open to alternative
viewpoints.
3. Adaptability: One of the key aspects of cultural intelligence is the ability to adapt
your communication style and behavior to fit the cultural norms and preferences of
the people you are interacting with. This may involve adjusting your tone, body
language, and communication methods.
Cultural in-
telligence
Divisions of cultures
44
4. Respect and Empathy: Cultural intelligence emphasizes respect for other cultures
and empathy for individuals from diverse backgrounds. It's essential to approach
intercultural communication with an open mind, curiosity, and a willingness to
learn from others.
5. Effective Communication Skills: Effective intercultural communication requires
strong communication skills, including active listening, clarity in speech, and the
ability to ask clarifying questions when needed. Non-verbal communication cues,
such as facial expressions and gestures, also play a significant role in conveying
respect and understanding.
6. Flexibility: Cultural intelligence involves flexibility in your communication approach.
Different cultures may have varying levels of formality, directness, and hierarchy
in communication. Being flexible and adaptable in these aspects can lead to
more successful interactions.
7. Lifelong Learning: Cultures are dynamic and ever-evolving. Cultural intelligence
involves a commitment to ongoing learning and improvement in your intercultural
communication skills. Staying informed about changes in cultures and global events
can help you remain culturally competent.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
What impact can cultural differences have on communication and cooperation between
people from different cultures, and how would you try to adapt to these influences in your
personal or professional life?
Cultural intelligence is a multi-faceted structure that includes several factors, Kajzar
(2011):
• Knowledge - Cultural intelligence is knowledge about another culture, but also
knowledge of one's own culture and understanding of how it influences individual
behaviours. A person with CQ can use this knowledge to identify specific
behaviours and attitudes of another culture and effectively adapt to them.
• Motivation - Cultural intelligence is also having the motivation to learn about
and experience other cultures as well as the willingness and ability to change
one's own mental processes and attitudes to those of the other culture.
• Skills - Cultural intelligence is having the right skill set so as to interact effectively
in another culture. This includes communication, interpersonal, empathy
and rapport-building skills, all of which are key factors for successful interactions
with people from a different culture.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
45
• Behaviours - Behaviours are an essential part of cultural intelligence, but since
they are often so ingrained in a person's character, this is one of the hardest things
to change and develop. Being able to interpret a situation and use the appropriate
behaviour is essential for successful cross-cultural interactions.
CASE STUDY
Description of situation:
XYZ Company is an international company operating in more than twenty countries
around the world. It has recently decided to establish a new global team to develop and
launch a new product with global reach. This team consists of 10 members who come from
various countries including the United States, Japan, the Czech Republic, India, Brazil,
South Africa and Turkey.
The problem:
Although the team members are excellent experts in their respective fields, problems
have begun to emerge regarding team effectiveness and communication. Team members
often misunderstand each other due to cultural differences that affect their working styles,
communication preferences and perspectives on problem solving.
How would you solve this problem?
4.2 Divisions of culture according to Hofstede
The Hofstede cultural dimension was discussed in detail in chapter 2. Therefore, the
most important findings will be briefly summarized here about division of cultures according
to Hofstede.
Hofstede's cultural dimensions are a theoretical framework proposed by Dutch social
psychologist Geert Hofstede for understanding and analyzing cultural differences between
different nations and cultures. This framework model is used to help people and organizations
better understand and work with cultural differences that can affect cross-cultural
communication, behavior and business relationships. Hofstede's cultural dimensions identify
and measure different aspects of culture that can influence the behaviour of individuals
and groups in different countries.
Research applying these dimensions has shown various insights into cross-cultural behavior
and communication. For instance:
Hofstede
division of
culture
Divisions of cultures
46
• Business Practices: Understanding these dimensions can help multinational companies
tailor their management and marketing strategies to different cultures. For
example, in high PDI cultures, it might be important to emphasize hierarchical
structures and deference to authority figures.
• Communication Styles: Differences in IDV can affect communication styles, with
high IDV cultures favoring direct communication and low IDV cultures relying
more on indirect communication.
• Leadership Styles: MAS can influence leadership styles, with high MAS cultures
often having more assertive and task-oriented leaders, while low MAS cultures may
prioritize consensus and relationship-building.
• Risk Management: UAI can impact risk tolerance and decision-making, which can
be crucial in areas like finance and investment.
It's important to note that while Hofstede's cultural dimensions provide valuable insights,
they are not absolute, and individuals within a culture can vary widely. Additionally,
cultures can change over time, so these dimensions may not capture all aspects of contemporary
culture. Nevertheless, they remain a useful framework for understanding broad cultural
tendencies and their implications in various domains.
In addition, these cultural dimensions can have significant impacts on intercultural
communication, for example in:
• Miscommunication: Differences in communication styles and expectations can
lead to misunderstandings, offense, or confusion between individuals from different
cultural backgrounds.
• Conflict Resolution: Cultural variations in conflict resolution approaches can
affect how conflicts are handled. Some cultures may prefer direct confrontation,
while others may opt for indirect or avoidance strategies.
• Decision-Making: Cultural dimensions can influence decision-making processes
and the level of consensus required. Some cultures may value group input, while
others may rely on individual decision-makers.
• Relationship Building: Cultural dimensions affect how relationships are formed
and maintained. Some cultures prioritize building trust over time, while others may
focus on achieving immediate goals.
• Negotiation: Negotiation styles can vary widely across cultures. Some may emphasize
compromise and concessions, while others may prefer competitive negotiation
tactics.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
47
• Leadership and Authority: The perception of leaders and their leadership styles
can differ based on cultural dimensions, impacting how leaders communicate and
make decisions.
The impact of these cultural dimensions on companies can be substantial. They affect
various aspects, including leadership styles, communication strategies, organizational
structures, human resource management, marketing approaches, and negotiation tactics.
Companies that are culturally sensitive and adaptable are more likely to succeed in international
markets by tailoring their strategies to align with the cultural norms and values of
the host countries. Additionally, understanding these dimensions can also be valuable for
managing multicultural teams within companies operating in diverse global environments.
CASE STUDY
Description of situation:
XYZ, an internationally operating manufacturing company based in the United States,
has decided to expand into the Asian market. ABC has a successful history in various countries,
but this move into Asia presents new challenges.
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions:
Power Distance (Power Distance):
In the United States, ABC has a strong hierarchy and strict management. At XYZ
Company, the culture is traditionally oriented toward respect for authority and hierarchy.
Individualism vs. Collectivism:
In the United States, ABC focuses on individual achievement and rewards individual
performance. At XYZ, the culture has strong collective elements, both in work and
personal life.
Masculinity vs. Femininity:
ABC Company in the United States favors performance and competition.
What challenges does the company face and what are your suggestions for dealing
with the situation?
Divisions of cultures
48
TO REMEMBER
There are several authors and researchers who study cultural dimensions and culture in
general, apart from Geert Hofstede. Some of them include: Trompenaars, Lewis, etc.
QUESTIONS
1.) Culture is divided into:
a) only material
b) only intangible
c) material and intagible
2.) Hofstede's cultural dimensions are a theoretical framework proposed by:
a) Dutch
b) Belgian
c) Germa
3.) Hofstede framework model is used to help people and organizations better understand
and work with cultural differences that can affect cross-cultural communication,
……………and …………..….relationships
a) behavior and business
b) people and organization
c) verbal and non verbal
ANSWERS
1c, 2a, 3a..
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
49
OTHER SOURCES
MOOIJ, M. K., 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes.
Thousand Oaks: SAGE, ISBN 9781412970419.
THOMAS, D. and K. INKSON, 2017. Cultural Intelligence: Surviving and Thriving in
the Global Village. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN: 9781626568679.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Culture is a universal human phenomenon, specifically human activity, which is not
owned by other biological forms of life. Culture is also perceived and studied as a special
way of life different groups of people. A cultural divide can have significant impact on
ninternational operations on global organizations that require communication between people
from different cultures. Cultural intelligence (CQ) is a concept that refers to an individual's
ability to understand and effectively interact with people from different cultural
backgrounds. In the context of intercultural communication, cultural intelligence plays a
crucial role in facilitating effective communication and building positive relationships
between individuals or groups from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Hofstede's cultural dimensions are a theoretical framework proposed by Dutch social
psychologist Geert Hofstede for understanding and analyzing cultural differences between
different nations and cultures. This framework model is used to help people and organizations
better understand and work with cultural differences that can affect cross-cultural
communication, behavior and business relationships. It's important to note that while Hofstede's
cultural dimensions provide valuable insights, they are not absolute, and individuals
within a culture can vary widely. Additionally, cultures can change over time, so these
dimensions may not capture all aspects of contemporary culture. Nevertheless, they remain
a useful framework for understanding broad cultural tendencies and their implications in
various domains.
Culture shock
50
5 CULTURE SHOCK
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces students the issues of culture shock and its impact on intercultural
communication. The chapter also focuses on the issue of reverse culture shock.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To explain culture shock,
• To describe issues of reverse culture shock.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Culture shock, reverse culture shock, culthure shock phase, excitment, frustration, turnaround,
adaption, return, symptoms of culture shock, examples of reverse culture shock.
5.1 Culture shock
Culture shock is a term used to describe the disorientation and discomfort that individuals
often experience when they encounter a culture that is significantly different from their
own. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in the context of intercultural communication,
which involves interactions between people from different cultural backgrounds.
People often associate the phenomenon of culture shock with travelling abroad and secondments
on business trips. In our view, this is a considerable narrowing of the issue, as
various cultures can clash to varying degrees even within the same country (Kolman, 2001).
CULTURAL SHOCK
The sociological dictionary describes culture shock as the shattering of existing cultural
certainties that occurs when an individual or community comes into direct contact with a
foreign culture.
Culture
shock
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
51
Culture shock arises in a person who is in an unfamiliar cultural environment, but also
subsequently upon his or her return home. Culture shock or acculturation stress is an umbrella
term for the problems an individual encounters when adapting to a new culture.38
Individuals often lack experience in a new country, do not know how to deal with and
respond appropriately to the things and ways that a new culture brings, and the response to
these new cultural experiences is culture shock.
Culture shock phase: (Ivanovová and Břichňáčová, 2006).
• Excitement - Everything is new, unusual, inviting. You absorb the superficial
traits of the culture and basically go along with it. you don't interact with it very
much. You are an outside observer.
• Frustration - You begin to communicate a little more and become more aware
of the real shape of things. There is a sobering frustration of not understanding,
not being able to anticipate, you start to criticize and judgmental - because everything
that's done differently than you know is done wrong, right?
• Turnaround - You've been through both extremes (elation and frustration) and
survived. On the surface of things you're getting deeper and you're starting to
understand. The tables are turning and you're heading towards the middle ground
between the two extremes. With understanding comes the first successes, and
suddenly you realize that there is something after all is working.
• Adaptation - Gradually more and more of it works. The environment is no longer
hostile to yours, but just "different" and more understandable. You find
things you may not have known at all, you are shown glimpses of things you
never thought of. You find that the same things can be done in more ways, and
maybe even better than you know from home.
• Return - After all the "hardships" you experienced on the road, you return home.
You think you've done it all, but there's a surprise waiting for you at home. It
may be that, although you have returned to familiar surroundings, you are unable
to function normally. Either you don't have a problem, or it lasts for a few days,
but it could be for the rest of your life. It depends on the strength of the experience
in the other culture.
The phases of culture shock can also be illustrated by the following Fig.:6, see below.
Culture
shock
phase
Culture shock
52
Fig. 6: Culture Shock Stages
Source: https://www.barendspsychology.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Culture-shock-stages-
e1441815194996.jpg
Symptoms of culture shock can vary in intensity and duration from person to person,
but usually include:
• Homesickness - Feelings of homesickness for one's home country, family and
friends.
• Anxiety and stress - Anxiety, nervousness and stress about new surroundings,
customs and social norms.
• Communication difficulties - Difficulties in understanding and comprehension
due to language barriers or differences in communication styles.
• Frustration - Frustration with local customs, bureaucracy and daily tasks that
may be more challenging in a new culture.
• Isolation and loneliness - Feelings of isolation and loneliness due to lack of
familiar social support networks.
• Cultural misunderstanding - Misunderstanding or misinterpretation of social
signals, gestures or etiquette that leads to embarrassment or discomfort.
• Physical symptoms - Headaches, fatigue, sleep disturbances and digestive problems
can be caused by stress and anxiety.
Symptons
of culture
shock
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
53
• Irritability: Increased irritability and impatience often stem from frustration at
not being able to navigate a new culture smoothly.
• Loss of confidence: Decreased self-esteem and self-confidence as individuals
may have difficulty adapting to a new environment.
• Negative stereotyping: Making negative generalisations about the local culture
or its people based on isolated experiences.
• Withdrawal: Avoiding social contact and withdrawing into one's own world as
a way of coping with the situation and etc.
CASE STUDY
Culture shock in tourism: The case of Thailand
Introduction:
Thailand is a popular destination for international tourists due to its beautiful beaches,
rich culture and exotic cuisine. In this case study, we focus on the story of Mark, a young
Czech tourist who decided to visit Thailand. Mark was affected by culture shock during his
stay in the country.
Context:
Mark was traveling to Thailand for the first time and had no previous experience with
Asian culture. He arrived with the expectation of having similar experiences to other countries
he had visited and was unaware of the differences in culture, religion and social norms.
What culture shocks might Mark experience? Explain in more detail.
5.2 Reverse culture shock
Reverse culture shock, also known as re-entry shock, is the psychological and emotional
discomfort that individuals may experience when returning to their home country or culture
after an extended period of living in a different country or culture. It is the opposite of the
culture shock that people often experience when they first arrive in a foreign environment.
Reverse culture shock can be a challenging and disorienting experience, and it can affect
various aspects of a person's life, including their emotions, behaviors, and perceptions.
Reverse
culture
shock
Culture shock
54
Some common experiences and symptoms of reverse culture shock include:
• Feeling like a Stranger - Despite being in your home country, you may feel like
a foreigner or outsider. The familiarity of your home culture may feel strangely
unfamiliar.
• Comparison and Critique - You might constantly compare your home culture
to the one you lived in while abroad, often finding faults or feeling disillusioned
with aspects of your own culture.
• Isolation - You may feel isolated from family and friends who don't understand
or relate to your experiences abroad. This can lead to a sense of loneliness.
• Boredom - After the excitement and novelty of living in a foreign culture, returning
to the routine of daily life in your home country can seem dull and uninte-
resting.
• Difficulty Communicating - Language can become a barrier even in your native
tongue. You might find it challenging to express your experiences and thoughts
to those who haven't shared your abroad experience.
• Loss of Independence - If you had a lot of independence and freedom while
abroad, returning to a more structured or controlled environment in your home
country can be frustrating.
• Changed Perspectives - Your time abroad may have altered your values, beliefs,
and priorities. This can create a sense of disconnect from the people and
culture you once identified with.
• Reevaluation of Goals - You might question your future goals and ambitions,
particularly if your experiences abroad have led to a shift in your career or personal
aspirations.
• Nostalgia - You may experience strong feelings of nostalgia for your life and
experiences in the foreign culture, leading to a desire to return.
Here are some examples of reverse culture shock:
• Communication - After living in a foreign country, individuals may have adapted
to a different communication style, language, or accent. Returning home,
they may struggle to switch back to their native language or find it odd to hear
their own accent.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
55
• Cultural Norms - People may have become accustomed to different cultural
norms and practices abroad. Returning home, they may find it strange or uncomfortable
to conform to the social norms they once took for granted.
• Food and Cuisine - The food available in one's home country may not be as
appealing or satisfying after getting used to foreign cuisine. Conversely, they
might miss the foods they enjoyed abroad that aren't readily available at home.
• Lifestyle: Differences in lifestyle, such as daily routines, work culture, and leisure
activities, can cause discomfort upon returning home. What was once familiar
may now seem strange or less satisfying.
• Values and Beliefs: Exposure to different values and belief systems abroad can
lead to a shift in one's own perspectives. Returning home, individuals may find
it difficult to align their newly acquired beliefs with those of their home culture.
• Technology and Infrastructure: Advances in technology and infrastructure
may have occurred in one's home country during their absence. Adapting to these
changes can be overwhelming, especially if they are significant.
• Career and Job Market: Job markets and career opportunities may have changed
in one's home country during their absence. Finding suitable employment or
transitioning back into their previous career can be difficult.
The W Curve illustrates the ups and downs of culture shock, see Fig.:7, see below.
Fig. 7: The W Curve of Culture Shock and Reverse Culture Shock
Source: https://www.interexchange.org/articles/visit-the-usa/reverse-culture-shock/
Culture shock
56
QUESTIONS
1.) What is culture shock?
(a) Culture shock is caused by insufficient sugar in the diet.
(b) Culture shock is a sudden and unpleasant feeling caused by a change in climate.
(c) Culture shock is a feeling of disorientation, confusion, and mismatch that a person
may experience when encountering a different culture.
2.) Excitement as Culture shock phase is:
a) in the beginning
b) in the middle
c) at the end
3) What is "reverse culture shock" and how does it manifest itself?
a) It is a term referring to a return to one's home culture after an extended stay
abroad. It manifests itself in sudden changes in diet.
b) It is a condition that occurs only in astronauts after returning from space. It is
manifested by loss of orientation.
c) It is a feeling of disorientation and insecurity that may occur on returning to the
home culture after an extended stay abroad, caused by differences in customs, values, etc.
ANSWERS
1c, 2a, 3c.
OTHER SOURCES
HARVEY, N., 2013. SoKoDiaries: Reverse Culture Shock. CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1537191126.
PEDERSEN, P., 1995. The Five Stages of Culture Shock: Critical Incidents Around the
World. London:Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313287824.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
57
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Culture shock is a disorienting and unsettling feeling that individuals experience when
they encounter a new and unfamiliar culture. It can manifest as a range of emotional and
psychological reactions, including confusion, anxiety, frustration, and even homesickness.
Culture shock typically occurs when people are exposed to customs, values, and social
norms that differ significantly from those of their own culture.
Reverse culture shock, also known as re-entry shock, is the disorientation and emotional
distress experienced by individuals when they return to their home culture after an extended
period of living in a foreign culture. It arises from the unexpected challenges of readjusting
to one's familiar environment, as it may no longer feel the same or as comfortable as it once
did. Symptoms can include feelings of alienation, frustration, and a sense of not belonging,
as well as difficulty in re-establishing routines and relationships.
Verbal and non – verbal communication
58
6 VERBAL AND NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter briefly tackles the verbal and non-verbal communication and its importance
for business communication. In this chapter will be mentioned types of communication and
two major forms of verbal communication and too selected categories of non-verbal
communication.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To explain verbal communication and non-verbal communication,
• To state the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication,
• To clarify ways non-verbal communication influences marketing.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Verbal communication, face to face communication, listening, non-verbal communication,
oral communication, reading, skills, types of communication, verbal communication,
writing.
6.1 Verbal communication
Verbal communication is the cornerstone of human communication and interaction. It
is the process of transmitting thoughts, feelings, information and ideas using words and
speech. This kind of communication plays a key role in all spheres of our lives, from personal
relationships and the work environment to public speaking and presentation skills.
Verbal communication is an essential element for communication and understanding
between individuals and groups. It includes spoken language, written texts and other forms
of verbal expression. A key aspect of verbal communication is the ability to share ideas,
express emotions, negotiate, teach and inform. Without effective verbal communication, it
would be difficult to achieve common goals and resolve conflicts.
Verbal
communi-
cation
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
59
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication uses verbal means - spoken or written word (including sign systems
- scientific and artistic language - equations, notes,...). Verbal communication involves
assumptions (motivations for why I am saying it) and outcomes (what response I will
get).
Verbal communication refers to the use of spoken words and language to convey information,
ideas, thoughts, and emotions between individuals. There are several types or forms
of verbal communication, each with its unique characteristics and purposes. Here are some
common types of verbal communication:
• Face-to-Face Communication - This occurs when people speak directly to one
another in person. It includes casual conversations, formal meetings, interviews,
and social interactions.
• Phone Conversations - Verbal communication over the phone involves speaking
to someone who is not physically present. It can be one-on-one or involve
noc
• Conference calls with multiple participants.
• Video Conferencing - With the advent of technology, video conferencing allows
individuals or groups to communicate verbally while seeing each other
through video feeds. This is often used for remote work, virtual meetings, or
long-distance communication.
• Public Speaking - Public speaking involves addressing a large audience, typically
in a formal setting like conferences, seminars, or presentations. Effective
public speaking requires good verbal communication skills.
• Lectures - In an educational context, lectures are a one-way form of verbal
communication where a speaker imparts information or knowledge to an audience.
It's commonly used in classrooms and lecture halls.
• Debates -Debates involve structured verbal communication where two or more
individuals present arguments, counterarguments, and engage in discussion.
They can be formal, such as political debates, or informal, like debates among
friends.
Verbal and non – verbal communication
60
• Interviews - Both job interviews and journalistic interviews involve verbal
communication. In job interviews, candidates answer questions from interviewers,
while in journalism, interviews are conducted to gather information from
sources.
• Interpersonal Communication - This includes everyday conversations and interactions
between individuals, such as chatting with friends, family members,
or colleagues. It can be formal or informal, depending on the context.
• Negotiations - Verbal communication plays a crucial role in negotiations,
whether in business deals, diplomatic discussions, or personal agreements.
Effective negotiation skills require clear and persuasive verbal communication.
• Counseling and Therapy - In counseling and therapy sessions, individuals engage
in verbal communication with a trained professional to address emotional,
psychological, or personal issues.
• Customer Service - Customer service representatives use verbal communication
to assist customers, answer their questions, and resolve issues over the phone
or in person.
• Radio Broadcasting - Radio hosts and announcers rely on verbal communication
to deliver news, entertainment, music, and other content to their audience
through radio waves.
• Podcasts - Similar to radio broadcasting, podcasts involve spoken content delivered
over the internet. Podcast hosts and guests engage in verbal discussions on
various topics.
• Voice Messages and Voicemail - In the age of digital communication, voice
messages and voicemail are used to leave spoken messages for others when they
are not available to answer a call.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Verbal communication skills are essential for effective communication in various personal,
professional, and social situations. These skills involve the use of spoken words to
convey messages, ideas, and information clearly and effectively. Strong verbal communication
skills can enhance your relationships, help you succeed in your career, and enable
you to express yourself confidently. People who communicate with a friendly tone and
smile always have the adge. It is important be friendly to the others and think before you
speak. Be clear and don´t talk too much. Don´t forget to be consise. Speak with confidence.
Focuse on your body language (Smith, 2001). Verbal communication skills according to
Mikuláštík (2003), Channel Crossings s. r. o. (2019) we can divide into:
Verbal
communication
ski-
lls
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
61
LISTENING SKILLS
Listening skills are essential for effective communication and interpersonal relationships.
They involve the ability to receive, interpret, and understand spoken or written information
accurately. Strong listening skills can improve your communication in various
aspects of life, including personal, professional, and social interactions. The basis for successful
communication between people is the ability to listen to each other. Listening does
not mean just to hear, but it means to understand and comprehend.
• Active listening is a basic social skill that allows you to be in good contact with the
communication partner and creates space for exhaustive communication. It brings
benefits to both parties. It's just one of the many forms of listening that we do not
normally use. Its use is mostly targeted (when we have reason to listen actively)
• Passive listening
o It means receiving information
o It does not provide feedback
o It is not connected with understanding
o the listener acts as a willow
ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The biggest advantage of oral communication is providing immediate feedback. The
advantage is also that this communication (oral verbal) can complement non-verbal
communication. The monologue is addressed to individuals or a larger group. Dialogue is
a verbal conversation between two people with the use of verbal and non-verbal means.
Dialogue can also be grouped (a special form is a discussion). To modern types of oral
communication belongs: video phones and video conferences, podcast, voice over the internet
protocol (skype). Oral communication skills are important for: managerial role, work
place success, secure a new job, advance your career.
READING SKILLS
Reading skills are essential for comprehending and making sense of written text. They
encompass a range of abilities that enable individuals to understand, interpret, and extract
meaning from written material. Strong reading skills are crucial for academic success,
effective communication, and lifelong learning. Here are some key components of reading
skills:
• Decoding - Decoding is the ability to translate written words into spoken language.
It involves recognizing and pronouncing individual letters, letter combinations
(e.g., digraphs like "th" or "sh"), and words.
• Fluency - Fluency refers to the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper
expression. Fluent readers can read text smoothly and at a natural pace, which
enhances comprehension.
Listening
skills
Oral
communication
ski-
lls
Reading
skills
Verbal and non – verbal communication
62
• Vocabulary - A robust vocabulary is essential for understanding and interpreting
written text. Readers with a broad range of words at their disposal can better
grasp the meaning of unfamiliar words and phrases.
• Comprehension - Comprehension is perhaps the most critical aspect of reading.
It involves understanding the meaning of text, making inferences, and connecting
ideas within and between sentences and paragraphs.
• Critical Thinking - Strong readers engage in critical thinking while reading.
They evaluate information, consider different perspectives, and question the text's
credibility and reliability.
• Context Clues - Readers use context clues, such as surrounding words and sentences,
to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases.
• Summarization - The ability to extract and condense the main ideas and key
details from a text is crucial. Summarization skills help readers retain information
and make it easier to review later.
• Active Reading -Active readers interact with the text as they read. They may
annotate, underline, highlight, or take notes to aid comprehension and retention.
• Predicting: Predicting involves making educated guesses about what will happen
next in a text based on prior information and clues from the text.
• Analytical Skills: Advanced readers can analyze the structure of a text, including
its organization, argument, and style. This skill is particularly important for
understanding complex or academic texts.
• Synthesizing Information: Readers may need to synthesize information from
multiple sources or sections of a text to gain a complete understanding of a topic.
• Reading Strategies - Effective readers use various strategies such as skimming,
scanning, and rereading to tailor their approach to different types of texts and
purposes.
• Cultural Awareness - Understanding cultural references and context is vital
when reading texts from different cultures or time periods.
• Digital Literacy - In today's digital age, digital literacy is essential. This includes
the ability to critically evaluate online sources and navigate digital texts.
• Lifelong Learning - Reading is a lifelong skill. Strong readers continue to read
and learn throughout their lives, expanding their knowledge and understanding.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
63
WRITTING SKILLS
Writing skills refer to a person's ability to effectively communicate their thoughts, ideas,
and information through the written word. Written communication provides records, legal
documents. In some cases, cost reductions can also be achieved. The disadvantage is the
lack of immediate feedback and also the possible uncertainty of communication in case of
poor written formulation. Written communication belongs to everyday life of all of us. I do
not know a person who would never write a letter, email, or an SMS message. Good writing
skills are bedrock of good commnication and could help you to connect with people. You
are able to write clearly, concisely and correctly. Bad writing creates a terrible impression.
Strong writing skills are essential in many aspects of life, including academia, business,
professional communication, journalism, creative writing, and more. They enable individuals
to convey their thoughts and ideas effectively, persuasively, and professionally, making
them a valuable skill in personal and professional contexts.
6.2 Non – verbal communication
Non-verbal communication refers to the transmission of information and messages without
the use of spoken or written words. It encompasses a wide range of cues, signals, and
expressions that people use to convey meaning, emotions, intentions, and attitudes to
others.
NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication, often referred to as nonverbal behavior or nonverbal interaction,
encompasses a vast and intricate array of communicative cues and expressions that
individuals use to convey information, emotions, and intentions without relying on spoken
or written language. This mode of communication is an integral and pervasive aspect of
human interaction, influencing how people perceive and interpret messages in various social,
cultural, and interpersonal contexts.
Non-verbal communication plays a crucial role in human interaction and can complement
or even override verbal communication in some cases. Here are some key components
of non-verbal communication:
• Facial Expressions - Facial expressions are one of the most powerful and universal
forms of non-verbal communication. Different facial expressions, such as
smiling, frowning, raising an eyebrow, or narrowing the eyes, can convey a wide
range of emotions and reactions.
Writting
skills
Non – ver-
bal
communi-
cation
Verbal and non – verbal communication
64
• Gestures - Hand and body gestures involve movements of the hands, arms, head,
and body to convey meaning or emphasis. Common gestures include waving,
pointing, nodding, and shrugging. These gestures can vary in meaning across
different cultures.
• Eye Contact - The way individuals use eye contact can communicate their level
of interest, engagement, or dominance in a conversation. Maintaining eye contact
is generally seen as a sign of attentiveness and confidence, but cultural norms
can influence its interpretation.
• Posture and Body Language - A person's posture, stance, and overall body language
can reveal a lot about their mood and attitude. For example, standing up
straight might convey confidence, while slouching may suggest indifference or
low self-esteem.
• Proximity - How close people stand or sit to each other can convey their level
of intimacy, comfort, or personal boundaries. Personal space varies among individuals
and cultures.
• Touch (Haptics) - Physical touch can communicate a wide range of emotions
and intentions, from affection and comfort to aggression or dominance. It's essential
to be aware of cultural and personal boundaries when using touch in
communication.
• Paralanguage - Paralanguage includes vocal elements such as tone, pitch, volume,
and the speed of speech. These elements can significantly affect the meaning
of spoken words. For example, a high-pitched tone might convey excitement
or nervousness, while a slow, deep tone might indicate seriousness or
authority.
• Appearance and Clothing - People often make judgments based on appearance
and clothing. Dressing professionally or casually, wearing specific colors, and
grooming choices can all send messages about one's personality, status, or va-
lues.
• Objects and Symbols - Non-verbal communication can also involve the use of
objects, symbols, or artifacts to convey meaning. For instance, a red traffic light
symbolizes "stop," and a thumbs-up gesture signifies approval.
• Microexpressions - These are very brief facial expressions that occur involuntarily
and often reveal true emotions, even when individuals are trying to conceal
them. Microexpressions can be challenging to detect but are a valuable tool in
understanding non-verbal cues.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
65
Non-verbal communication is a also powerful tool in marketing that goes beyond words.
It includes visual design, packaging, body language, and other sensory elements that can
shape consumer perceptions, emotions, and ultimately, purchasing decisions. Successful
marketers recognize the importance of these non-verbal cues and use them strategically to
create a strong brand identity and connect with their target audience.
Here are some ways non-verbal communication influences marketing:
• Brand Image and Identity - Non-verbal elements like logos, color schemes,
typography, and visual design are crucial in creating a brand's identity. These
elements communicate a brand's personality, values, and target audience, shaping
consumers' perceptions and loyalty.
• Packaging - Packaging design is a form of non-verbal communication that can
make or break a product's success. It communicates information about the product,
its benefits, and its target audience. Effective packaging design can also
enhance shelf visibility and attract consumers.
• Body Language and Sales Personnel - In face-to-face sales situations, the body
language, facial expressions, and gestures of sales personnel play a crucial role.
Positive and welcoming non-verbal cues can establish trust and rapport with
customers.
• Website and User Experience - Online marketing relies heavily on website design
and user experience. Elements like navigation, layout, images, and even
loading times can affect user engagement and conversion rates.
• Social Media and Influencer Marketing - Non-verbal cues on social media,
such as emojis, images, and videos, help convey emotions and messages. Influencers
often use their body language and facial expressions to endorse products,
impacting their followers' perception and trust.
• Emotional Appeal - Non-verbal communication can tap into consumers' emotions.
Ads that use music, storytelling, or visual elements to evoke emotions can
create strong connections between consumers and brands.
• Event Marketing - Non-verbal elements like event design, decorations, and visuals
are essential in creating memorable and immersive brand experiences at
events, trade shows, and exhibitions.
Verbal and non – verbal communication
66
CASE STUDY
Mr. Novák, CEO of a medium-sized IT company.
Problem:
Mr. Novak had a long-standing problem with how to effectively lead his team. Despite
being an IT expert, she had trouble communicating and leading her team. Some employees
accused him of not being able to listen to their opinions and of being too authoritative. This
had a negative impact on the team atmosphere and company performance.
Solution:
Mr. Novak decided to turn to a nonverbal communication expert to improve his skills in
this area.
Suggest some steps on how Mr. Novak should proceed.
QUESTIONS
1.) Passive listening is:
a) receiving information
b) it does provide feedback
c) is connected with understanding
2.) What gesture usually indicates that a person is nervous or insecure?
a) Head nodding
b) Clapping hands
c) Clenching a fist
3.) Proximity is :
a) touching behaviour
b) hand and body gestures
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
67
c) how close people stand or sit to each other can convey their level of intimacy,
comfort, or personal boundaries
ANSWERS
1a, 2a, 3a.
OTHER SOURCES
CANAVOR, N., 2019. Business writing today: A practical guide. London: Sage. ISBN
978-15-063-8832-8.
VARNER, I. and L. BEAMER, 2010. Intercultural communication in global business.
5th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0073377742.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Verbal communication is the exchange of information, ideas, and emotions through spoken
language. It involves using words and vocal tones to convey messages and is a fundamental
way humans communicate with each other. Verbal communication can be face-toface
or occur over various communication platforms, such as phone calls, video chats, or
public speaking engagements. It relies on the sender's ability to articulate thoughts clearly
and the receiver's capacity to listen and interpret the spoken words effectively. Effective
verbal communication is essential for effective interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and
conveying information in various personal and professional contexts.
Non-verbal communication refers to the transmission of information and messages without
the use of spoken or written words. It encompasses a wide range of cues and signals,
including body language, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, posture, tone of voice,
and even proxemics (the use of personal space). Non-verbal communication plays a crucial
role in conveying emotions, intentions, and attitudes, often complementing or contradicting
the words spoken. It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and can greatly impact
how messages are perceived and understood.
Business communication between cultures
68
7 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CULTURES
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter emphasizes the importance of finding the most efficient ways of international
business communication, its barriers, benefits, and steps which can help to improve
communication between cultures. The chapter introduces the skills for different types of
communication – presentation skills, telephone skills, video conferencing, etc.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To define the types of business communication,
• To improve the skills for giving presentations,
• To use the benefitial phrases for telephone conversations,
• To practise video conferencing,
• To explain some characteristics of chosen cultures.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Communication, empathy, international business, language skills, technology, time
zone.
7.1 International Business Communication
Nowadays, with globalization, more and more companies are involved in international
business. It brings a lot of oportunities for them, but at the same time, it is a challenge for
them in many ways. The companies have to cope with new markets, new legal circumstances,
and new cultures with completely different background.
There are common principles in everyday business communication and international
business communication. However, there are some differences the companies have to be
aware of and these new principles of international business communication need to be included
in their corporate culture to lead their business in the international environment suc-
cessfully.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
69
People in international business should deal with new skills including empathy, cultural
sensitivity and understanding, openess, good time management, excellent communication
skills, language skills, clarity, etc.
People in business should consider very conscientiously the best way of communication
for different occasions. At the moment, the most efficient ways of communication used for
business are writing e-mails, the use of social media, videoconferencing, phone calls, and
face-to-face meetings. All the methods have they advantages and disadvantages but both
are strengthen by the fact that peole operate in the international environment. Using up-todate
communication tools is necessary alongside with the necessity to choose the right one.
When choosing the right global communication channels for your business and occasion it
is important to cosider:
• the needs of the party,
• the level of engagement you want to achieve,
• the budget,
• the benefits and drawbacks of each channel.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
As we mentioned in the previous chapters, you have to have in mind the fact that people
are from different culture dimensions. The role of cultural differences is very important,
we need to understand and respect diverse cultures. The language skills of both sides
should be considered as well. Language differences can lead to miscommunication. We
need to learn if the parties are from low context or high context cultures? Is price bargaining
acceptable? The message should be conveyed in clarity, with empathy, without idioms,
slang, abbreviations. Body language should be taken into consideration because to undertand
it needs a lot of experience. International business communication involves the awareness
of business etiquette and culture norms to be able to build tust and relationships
between partners in negotiatins. Another part of successful business communication is connected
with time management due to various time zones. Planning meetings, projects,
deadlines across different time zones requires attention to ensure effective communication
and collaboration.
BENEFITS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective international communication can help businesses devolop without barriers and
it can:
• improve business opportunities and boost demand for products or services,
• help build relationships in a foreign country,
• prevent you from conflicts and misunderstandings,
• encourage better teamwork,
• strengthen better morale among employees.
Ways of
communi-
cation
Barriers to
communi-
cation
Business communication between cultures
70
HOW CAN THE EFFECTIVE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION BE IMPROVED?
Companies with intenational partners should take measures to gain the efficient communication
including the following steps:
• hire multilingual staff,
• use up-to-date technology,
• improve written communication,
• improve active listening,
• provide various trainings – language, cultrure awareness,
• create banks of frequent terminology,
• multiple language versions of company’s website.
CHECK QUESTION
Search for examples of different types of business communication and describe
them.
7.2 Presentation skills
Giving presentations belongs to everyday business life and therefore it is one of the
essential skills for the people in business. A presentation can be delivered face-to-face to
your listener/listeners or through a videoconference, which is being used very often in business
communication. There are several points when getting ready for a presentation, which
can make it easier:
• Preparation is vital,
• Think about the aim of your presentation,
• Prepare the structure of the presentation,
• Think about your audience,
• If it is possible (technical devices are needed) have a PowerPoint presentation with
key points or other supportive material with you,
• Try to deliver with notes only,
• Prepare graphs, charts, illustrations, videos,
Steps to
improve
communi-
cation
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
71
• Think about the quality of voice, intonation (listeners expect variety in a speaker´s
voice) and speed of your speech – mainly at the beginning of your presentation when
you can be very nervous but keep the speed during the whole speech because you
want to persuade the listeners, want them to understand the topic, if it is necessary
repeat important matters several times,
• Listen to your audience, respect them and their comments,
• Make eye contact with the listeners,
• Use suitable but not disturbing gestures,
• Include answering questions throughout or at the end of the presentation (coping
with questions explain at the beginning,
• Wear comfortable, neutral, elegant clothes.
TO REMEMBER
Before your presentation think about your listeners from different points of view.
Their culture background should be taken into consideration as well. Sometimes subject
of the presentation is the same but delivering is modified to address the audience.
SOME RULES FOR VISUAL PRESENTATION
If using a visual presentation, prepare the suitable number of slides including an introductory
one and the slides with the overview and summary of the presentation.
Think about the text in each slide – it is only a supportive component of the speech,
better given in points only, too much text can be disturbing because listeners do not have
time for either reading or listening. The text must be readable – font size is important. Too
many colours for fonts are not advisable, too – three are enough. Not all colours can be
seen by your audience.
Everybody is unique, has his/her own style and that makes presentations attractive. The
best way for learning how to deliver a good presentation is to give them – your experience
will help you to build your own style.
TO REMEMBER
• The language of your presentation must be understandable, simple, and easier than
in writing.
Visual pre-
sentation
Business communication between cultures
72
• If using terminology, explain it.
• Do not use abstract nouns.
• Stress the important parts.
• Do not forget to use signpost language and use it to divide the presentation in logical
parts.
7.2.1 SIGNPOST LANGUAGE
It is desirable to divide the presentation into several logical parts to give the audience
time to absorb the main points, to think them over and to ask or prepare questions.
The words and phrases that leads both you and your listeners through the speech can help.
Study some examples of signpost language for different parts of presentation:
Introducing the topic – The subject of my presentation is …., I´m going to talk about ....,
I´m going to give you an overview of …. , The focus of today´s presentation is ….,
Overview – I´d like to begin by …., Firstly, …., The presentation today is divided into four
parts ….,
Introducing the first section – I´d like to start/begin by…
Starting a new section – Let´s move on to …., Let´s look at …, Having discussed … I´d
like to move on to ….,
Finishing a section – So much for…, We looked at ….,
Giving an example – To give you an example…., To illustrate this point ….,
Summarizing and concluding – To sum up …., To conclude …., In conclusion …., Finally,
let´s summarize some of the main points.
Invitation to ask questions – Please feel free to ask questions. Would you like to ask questions?
Please do not hesitate to interrupt me if you have any questions.
Finishing and saying goodbye – If there are no further questions, I´d like to thank you
very much for your attention. If you think of any additional questions, please feel free to
contact me.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
73
QUESTIONS
Give a suitable phrase for the following situations:
1 Greet the audience.
2 Introduce yourself.
3 Give the topic of your talk.
4 Explain the overview of your presentation.
5 Explain the audience dealing with questions during a presentation.
6 Say something about the length of your presentation.
7.3 Telephone skills
Using the phone is one way how to reach your business partner if you need fast information,
to confirm a meeting, to postpone a meeting, to discuss flight arrangements, etc. In
this part, you can find the useful phrases for a telephone conversation.
We say …..
• make a call
• call/ phone/ring someone
• give somebody a call/ring
MAKING A CALL: FIRST WORDS
Speaking immediately to a person you want:
Is that Peter? Hello! This is Tom.
Hi Daisy? This is Andrea from Munich.
How are you doing?
Speaking to a receptionist or a secretary say your name and company:
Good morning, my name is ……
Good afternoon. This is …… from…..
Phrases
for phone
calls
Business communication between cultures
74
Then you ask for the person you want:
Could I speak to …… , please?
Can I have extension 555, please?
Could you put me through to the Marketing Department, please?
Sometimes the reason for your call is needed:
I´m calling to……
The reason I´m calling is ….
I´d like to speak to someone about ….
I´m calling in connection with ……
RECEIVING A CALL: FIRST WORDS
If you answer a general company phone number, give your own name and company
name:
Good morning, Global International, Tom speaking, how can I help you?
If you answer a direct line inside a company:
Marketing Department, Luisa speaking.
If somebody asks for you by name, you say:
Speaking.
If you must transfer the call, say:
I´ll try his number for you. Hold the line, please.
Just a moment. I´ll put you through.
Please hold. I´ll connect you.
If the person is not available, say:
I´m sorry, he´s in a meeting/ away from the office this week.
Can I take a message?
Would you like to leave a message?
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
75
Shall I ask him to call you back?
LEAVING AND TAKING MESSAGES
Can I leave a message?
Could you give him/her a message?
Please ask him/her to ring me …. .
Please tell him/her I called.
Can I take a message?
Would you like to leave a message?
If you give me your number I´ll ask him/her to call you back.
Shall I ask him to call you back?
Can I have your name and number, please?
Sorry, I didn´t catch your name/number.
Sorry, can you repeat your name and number, please.
Could you spell your name, please?
QUESTIONS
1 Complete the sentences with suitable prepositions:
about, back, through, through, to, to, up.
1 After several tries I finally managed to get ___________ .
2 I´ve been on hold for about 3 minutes, I´m going to hang ________ .
3 I´d like to speak _____ someone ______ your advertising campaign.
4 I´ll put you ______ ______ the manager.
5 Shall I ask her to call you _______ ?
Business communication between cultures
76
2 Middle or end of the telephone conversation? Put the phrases bellow in the col-
umns:
The middle of the call The end of the call
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
___________________________ ________________________
1 So what we agreed so far is ….
2 Thanks for calling.
3 I look forward to hearing from you till the end of the week.
4 I´ll send you an email with all the details.
5 I think that´s all from me.
6 Nice talking to you. Bye.
7 What are the reasons for thinking that?
8 Enjoy your weekend and give my regards to Angela.
3 Put the words in correct order:
1 please more speak could slowly could?
2 I number can your please have?
3 catch sorry name didn´t your I.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
77
7.4 Video conferencing
The majority of business meetings is held via videoconferencing. This tool has been
very popular because it is efficient and it can save our time. At the same time, it needs a
proper preparation. It is advisable to check technology:
• connection,
• camera,
• microphone,
• set your camera to an appropriate height,
• check your desktop (in the case you are sharing documents, presentation),
• check your surroundings.
Before videoconferencing, you should study the agenda, prepare your questions and
study terminology in advance. You can also expect questions other participants
might have and prepare the answers. You can practise your presentation or speech,
study vocabulary, etc.
Practise some useful phrases:
STARTING A MEETING
Thank you for joining me, if you are having any technical issues let us know in the chat.
I have muted everyone’s microphne…
I won’t keep you long….
I’ll be brief …
7.5 Characteristics of some cultures
As you know, the way of communication is important for effective and efficient business.
To be successful you must always think about your partner and the most suitable ways
of business communication – to use written or oral way, to meet face-to-face or to choose
videoconference, or to make a phone call, etc. in order to reduce the risk of failure. The
way of communication often reflects the position of the user in his company. Sometimes
Business communication between cultures
78
written communication and seldom telephone conversation is enough. Some positions include
regular oral communication. To help their employees and to standardize procedures,
some international companies provide their employees with a summary of useful terminology
for their communication with clients and partners.
TO REMEMBER
Listen to your partner carefully and respect him/her. It takes time to build a partnership,
but it can be ruined in a moment.
Our companies closely cooperate with partners from different parts of the world. Some
people prefer using written communication to be able to prepare properly, they are also
afraid of misunderstanding, especially if making a phone call. It needs a lot of practice, you
cannot see other party´s gestures and sometimes pronunciation can influence understanding
as well (French, Asian accent can be strong).
Germans and French are hierarchical cultures you should reach the responsible person.
When talking to British respect their high context culture and their use of formal lan-
guage.
When giving a presentation in American surroundings it should be well prepared, with
concentration on the main problem. Americans are business-oriented, low context culture.
They expect professional approach. In different cultures, the length of a presentation can
vary, too. For example, Italians like a long introduction with the company details and about
the speaker background. When giving a presentation in Sweden, do not expect lively discussion
afterwards. Swedish expect you to prepare the topic with all the necessary details
and that is why no discussion is needed. Giving presentations in Japan and discussion afterwards
are strongly connected with the body language. If there is an eye contact with the
speaker, the person wants to ask a question.
Communication in Asian cultures can be really challenging and a lot of patience is
needed due to their politeness and the concept of face – Mainzi. People avoid behaviour
or situations which may cause embarrassment, shame, or loss of respect. It is impossible to
say NO because this is disrespectful and the aim of partners’ negotiations is to build a longlasting
partnership.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
79
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 You can choose a way of communication you like best. T/F
2 You can decide if you prefer formal or informal language in business communication.
T/F
3 Giving presentations is a favourite way of business communication. T/F
4 During telephone conversation, can you answer a call: It´s Adam. T/F
5 When talking to Brits it is easy to understand them from the context. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Complete the sentences with suitable prepositions:
1 through, 2 up, 3 to, about, 4 through to, 5 back
2 Middle or end of the telephone conversation?
The middle of the conversation: 1, 4, 7
The end of the conversation: 2, 3, 5, 6, 8
3 Put the words in correct order:
1 Could you speak more slowly, please?
2 Can I have your name, please?
3 Sorry, I didn´t catch your name.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F, 2 F, 3 T, 4 F, 5 F
Business communication between cultures
80
OTHER SOURCES
CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide to International
Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. Second edition. ISBN 978-
0-7494-5274-2.
COLLINSON, S. et al. 2020. Inernational Business. UK: Pearson. ISBN
9781292274171
HAMPDEN-TURNER, C., & TROMPENAARS, F. 2020. Riding the Waves of Culture.
(4th ed) John Murray Press.
QUINTANILLA, K. M. and S. T. WAHL, 2011. Business and Professional Communication.
Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6472-2.
TULEJA, E., 2021. Intercultural communication for global business: How leaders
communicate for success. London: Routledge 2nd edition.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter deals with business communication in international environment, the ways
of business communication and the suitable choice of it for both parties, effective presentation
skills with the accent on some rules how to prepare a presentation, the use of signpost
language, the chapter revised telephone phrases and phrases for video-conferencing. It describes
some cultures and their characteristics in business communication.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
81
8 BUSINESS ETIQUETTE
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter defines what business etiquette is, how important it is for corporate culture.
It explains the behaviour we expact in business environment to show respect to our business
partners, or clients.
The chapter deals with some topics of etiquette – small talk, meeting people for the first
time, introduction, dress code, giving gifts, etc.
Some differences in cultures and their behaviour are explained, using the knowledge about
culture dimensions described in the previous chapters. The chapter emphasizes the necessity to
realize that this side of doing business might sometimes be crutial for the success.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To define business etiquette,
• To aquire skills for meeting people,
• To explain what is included in etiquette,
• To demostrate the differences in cultures when meeting people.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Dress code, communication, etiquette, giving gifts, hierarchy, greeting, small talk.
8.1 Business etiquette
If a company wants to be successful in international business, they should think about
the manners and behaviour in social and business situations. The goal of their effort is to
build a good relationship with their business partners to cooperate profitably with the respect
to partner’s culture, values, norms. When doing business abroad it is polite to do some
research about manners, etiquette in the partners’ culture. There are many situations where
culture differences occur to be taken into consideration including:
• Making introductions,
Business etiquette
82
• Exchanging business cards,
• Shaking hands,
• Making small talk,
• Dress code,
• Accepting status and position,
• Keeping the distance,
• Having dinner,
• Giving presents,
• Travelling.
It is not enough to focus on doing business only because your competitors who show
more respect and intercultural sensitivity might be at an advantage.
DEFINITION
Etiquette:
- the formal rules of polite or correct behaviour in society, among members of a particular
profession or in a particular area of activity
8.2 Greetings and Small talk
A first impression starts from the appearance and the first moments of conversation. It
is practical to know useful phrases how to introduce yourself and others, what to say and
keep the conversation going.
GREETINGS AND WELCOMING
Greeting people, you have not met before:
Excuse me, are you Ms Green? May I introduce myself? My name´s …… .
Nice/Pleased /Glad to meet you.
How was your flight/journey?
Greeting people, you have already met:
Formal – Good morning/afternoon, Mr Johnson.
Less formal – Hi/Hey/Hello. Nice to see you again.
Greetings
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
83
Followed by: How are you? or more informal How are you keeping? How are things
with you? How is life?,etc..
If the host meets the visitor at the airport/ railway station:
Welcome to the Czech Republic. Let me help you with your suitcase. Did you have a
good journey? Is this your first time in …… ? A taxi is waiting for us. We´ll go straight to
our company.
If the receptionist welcomes the visitor:
Good morning, I´ll let Mr Novak know you´ve arrived.
Take a seat over there, please.
Can I get you a drink or coffee?
If the host welcomes the visitor at the office:
Come in.
It´s good to see you again.
Let me take your coat.
Have a seat.
Would you like something to drink? Tea or coffee, mineral water? How do you take it –
black or white, with sugar?
How was your journey?
Where are you staying? Is everything fine with your hotel/accommodation?
INTRODUCTIONS
If there are three people and two of them are meeting for the first time, then the third
one will introduce them. He knows how to address the participants because it can vary in
different cultures. Follow the person making the introduction:
Formal – Let me introduce Mr. Johnson to you.
Less formal – Adam, have you met Tom? (I don´t think you have met Tom. or This is Tom.)
Answer: Nice/Pleased /Glad to meet you.
Introducti-
ons
Business etiquette
84
CHECK QUESTION
Match the greetings and the replies.
1 Good afternoon. My name´s is Peter Novak.
2 Hello, Tom. Good to see you again.
3 Excuse me, are you Ms Black?
4 Hello, Mr Brown. How are you?
5 Have you met Peter?
a I don´t think so.
b I´m fine. And you?
c Hello, pleased to see you too.
d Yes, that´s right.
e Pleased to meet you, Mr Novak.
Put the halves together.
1 Did you have a something to eat?
2 Welcome b our company easily?
3 Is this your first c staying?
4 Where are you d to Karvina.
5 Would you like e to see you again.
6 Did you find f a good flight?
7 It´s nice g time in the Czech Republic?
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
85
SMALL TALK TOPICS
When meeting someone even in business you make small talk in most cases. We use
small talk to learn about partner´s personality, interests, job, etc., to build a relaxed atmosphere
and trust. We have to be aware of the fact that in some cultures they do not make
small talk, or they do not start they conversation from small talk, they concentrate on business
first.
DEFINITION OF SMALL TALK
Small talk is a polite conversation about subjects that are ordinary or unimportant, especially
at social occasions (Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary, 2024).
Small talk topics should be about neutral matters, not very personal. The choice of topics
depends on circumstances you are in – situation, relationship, etc.
If you do not know each other, you can start from introduction. Then you can use some
universal topics: origins, weather, sports, job, interests, food, cuisine, travelling, and
sightseeing.
TO REMEMBER
When talking to your partner REALLY LISTEN TO THE ANSWERS. Try to use the information
in the future to show your respect, interest, to be polite to your partner. And do
not forget to SHARE SOME DETAILS ABOUT YOURSELF.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare your own database of some interesting and unique small talk questions
and create your answers to them, try to think about your future career.
Small talk
topics
Business etiquette
86
QUESTIONS
Choose the suitable word to complete the sentences:
Can Do Have How Is What Where Who
1 __________you mind if I join?
2 __________this you first time in Prague?
3 __________are you enjoying your stay?
4 __________long are you here for?
5 __________is your job?
6 __________I get you something to drink?
7 __________lovely weather?
8 __________been to Dubai?
9 __________do you work for?
10 _________are you staying?
8.3 Characteristics of some cultures
Doing business in England stands on traditions and the English are reserved, like the
Americans, they concentrate on business and they respect people´s privacy. Meetigns in
the USA are all about business, questions about health and family are not expected. When
talking about non verbal communication, eye contact plays an important role when conducting
business with Americans. It shows confidence and respect In some cultures it is
very rude as you know from the previous chapter.
Dress code is important, too. It is advisable to wear elegant clothes in all cultures both
for women and for men. In some cultures they even notice the quality of materials and the
fact if you are wearing designer clothes.
In Germany, they respect hierarchy and they prefer formal communication. They are
always on time so be punctual or excuse if you are late. Business events are well-structured,
straight to the point. When being introduced use titles and surnames to show respect, a firm
handshake is involved. First names can be used only if it is offered.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
87
Shaking hands can differ in various cultures. Americans shake hands firmly so as Germans
who start and finish a meeting from shaking hands with everyone starting with the
most senior person. In Britain, a handshake is light, and you cannot stand too close and
only when meeting for the first time. French people shake hands quickly and slightly with
everybody and anytime. In Turkey, a handshake is not firm, but they hold the hand for a
long time. You can shake hands with the opposite sex in business situations but not in
common ones in Russia. Do not shake hands in Thailand, place your palms together at chest
level and bow and the other person returns this gesture.
In Asia during introduction, the handshake is followed by a bow, without a direct eye
contact. The business card exchange is very important. Business cards are given and received
with both hands, studied carefully, it is advisable to make some comments. Because
of the respect to status and position in Asian cultures, business cards are written in detail
and during meetings are visible so that they can be read easily. Do not forget that in Asian
cultures giving and taking face influences the ways of communication and building a relationship
is vital for further cooperation.
Regarding small talk, do not be surprised that Finns do not prefer it, as it is their privacy.
Situation is similar to Scandinavian countries. Sauna plays an important role in socializing
in Finland.
CASE STUDY
Read this case study and explain what happened using your knowledge about culture
dimensions, etiquette:
A Hungarian woman worked for a German company. She was satisfied with her salary,
which was much higher than in Hungary. However, she did not like her boss who was 4
years younger and never let her in first, never opened the door for her when they appear at
the same time.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 “How are you doing?” is it about our profession? T/F
2 They use titles and surnames in Germany when introducing. T/F
3 Small talk is useless in business conversation. T/F
Business etiquette
88
4 Shaking hands in Thailand is typical. T/F
5 Dress code is an important part of corporate culture. T/F
ANSWERS
Match the greetings and the replies.
1e 2c 3d 4b 5a
Put the halves together.
1f 2d 3g 4c 5a 6b 7e
Choose the suitable word to complete the sentences:
1 Do 2 Is 3 How 4 How 5 What 6 Can 7 What 8 Have 9 Who 10 Where
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1F 2T 3F 4F 5T
OTHER SOURCES
REYNOLDS, S., and D. VALENTINE, 2011. Guide to Cross-Cultural Communication
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall publishing.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
89
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
Business etiquette is an important part of doing international business. It is about manners
and behaviour in different situations with different cultures. It needs some research
and experiance which can help you to avoid misunderstandings and prevent partners from
spoiling their business. We start building relationships with our partners from the very beginning,
therefore introduction, shaking hands, exchanging business cards, non-verbal
communication, etc. should be taken into account.
Meetings
90
9 MEETINGS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of the chapter is to enhance students´ skills for leading meetings successfully
because having meetings is one of the efficient and effective tools in business communication
even if the form of meetings is being changed thanks to new information and communication
technologies and the majority of meetings are held via video-conferencing. This
fact has brought new requirements on meeting participants at the same time.
The chapter explains how to prepare a meeting agenda including recommended items.
Being successful in meetings also involves phrases for opening, closing a meeting, summarizing,
changing a topic, etc.
The final part of the chapter explains some differences in holding meetings in specific
cultures people in the international business should be aware of.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To gain skills needed for meetings,
• To aquire the tips what to include in an agenda,
• To learn useful phrases for meetings,
• To define some differences in cultures and having meetings.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Agenda, attendee, chairperson, discussion, meeting, minutes, participant, report, venue.
9.1 Elements of effective meetings
Holding meeting is an efficient way of business communication. However, it is also an
area where cultural differences can be seen and have a negative effect on corporate
business. Culture values, etiquette, rules, etc. should be controlled even more. This form of
communication requires careful preparation. The purpose of the meeting should be considered
and an appropriate type of the meeting chosen – face-to-face or virtual one, what will
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
91
best achieve the desired outcomes. The number and location of participants plays a crutial
role as well. A detailed meeting agenda is prepared in advance and shared with the at-
tendees:
• a list of topics (time expected to dedicate to each topic),
• a list of participants,
• the main goal,
• a timeline
• additional materials / PowerPoint, documents, data.
Timing, the start time and fininshing time will be planned carefully because of different
time zones, business hours. Holidays need to be checked, too. Invitations and reminders
are sent to the attendees. The hierarchical system of a culture influences the meeting –
seating, criticism in discussion, approaches to meetings. Business etiquette and manners in
different cultures should be accepted. It is advisable to send some questions regarding the
discussed topics. Technology and all the tools used at the meeting must be checked and
prepared. The role of a chairperson is challenging. S/he leads the meeting efficiently and
encourages the participation from all participants.
Follow-up after the meeting.
TO REMEMBER
‘Great things in business are never done by one person. They are done by a team
of people. - Steve Jobs
9.2 Agenda
Each meeting starts from an agenda, which is delivered to participants in advance, nowadays
electronically. It is advisable to send the agenda several days in advance for the participants
to be able to get ready. An agenda for staff can differ from an agenda for a conference
but the aim is the same: to inform meeting attendees about the discussed topics and
to let them to get ready. What should be included in the meeting agenda?
• Date,
• Time,
• Venue (place),
• Participants, attendees,
• Items for discussion,
Parts of
agenda
Meetings
92
• The amount of time needed,
• Pre-work for the meeting.
TO REMEMBER
• The agenda should not be too long, for about maximum 5 topics.
• Create your agenda early.
• State the aim/aims.
• Give enough time to each point on the agenda.
• Let everybody know what to prepare and who is responsible for what.
• Do not forget about the time needed for summary.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare an agenda for a meeting on a new advertising campaign and include the
points:
• Minutes of previous meeting,
• Date of next meeting,
• Apologies for absence,
• Marketing plan, etc.
9.3 Chairing and leading discussion
The chairperson, who is in charge of the meeting, opens the meeting. Someone might
be asked to take the minutes/Memorandum of Meeting (written summary of the meeting).
If the attendees do not know each other, the meeting begins with their introduction.
The chair also announces who sends apologies. Then everybody is asked to approve the
minutes of the previous meeting if the meeting happened. The next step is the review of the
agenda. The chair sets the time limit, reminds the participants to switch off their mobile
phones, invite them to have some refreshment, etc. All remarks are addressed through the
chair. The chair concludes one point and leads into the next. He/She highlights important
points. The chair looks after the time. The chairperson concludes the contributions, speaks
about achievements, and thanks everybody for coming.
Chairperson´s
du-
ties
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
93
QUESTION
What are the functions of the chairperson?
In what ways is the role of the chairperson different when using Webex without a
video?
Where is the difference between: a suggestion, a proposal, a recommendation?
Study the useful phrases for chairing and leading discussion:
Opening the meeting
Thank you for coming.
It´s ten o´clock. Let´s start./Let´s go down the business.
I´ve received apologies from….
Any comments on the previous meeting?
Introducing the agenda
You´ve all seen the agenda….
There are two items to discuss.
Our objective is to discuss different ideas…
The purpose of this meeting is….
The reason we are here today is….
Calling on a speaker
I´d like to ask Tom to tell us about….
I know Ann´s prepared …..
What about you?
What is your opinion, Tom?
Controlling the meeting
Sorry Tom, can we let Peter finish?
Meetings
94
Ann, we can´t talk about that now.
Can I just finish my point?
Perhaps we can come back to this later?
Changing the topic
Right/So. Now what about…?
Shall we move on to discuss….?
Summarizing
So, what you´re saying is ….
Can I summarise that? You mean …. .
The main point is …..
Finishing the meeting
I think we´ve covered everything.
We´ve decided ….
I think we should end there. Just to summarize….
I think we can close today´s meeting.
So, before the next meeting I´m going to …. and you´re going to ….
We will meet again next week at…..
I will look forward to hearing from you …
It´s been a pleasure to see you today and I look forward to our next meeting scheduled
on ….
Other useful phrases for giving opinion
I think/ I feel/ I´d say ….
From my point of view, …
In my view ….
As far as I´m concerned ….
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
95
It seems to me ….
Agreeing and disagreeing
That´s right./ That´s true. / Absolutely./ Exactly.
Good point./ Yes, I agree. / Yes, a good idea.
That´s true, but ….
Yes, you have a point, but ….
I can see what you´re saying, but ….
I´m not sure about that.
That´s not really how I see it.
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 Complete the phrases with the correct prepositions:
1 put your phone _____ silent mode
2 have a break _____ refreshments
3 deal _____ some important topics
4 discuss the topic ______ detail
5 run ______ time and finish later
2 Choose the correct word
1 OK. Let´s get started/make it start.
2 The object/purpose of the meeting is to discuss the market research results.
3 From/In my point of view it would be better to….
4 Yes, you have reason/you´re right.
5 Can we come back/come back to this point later?
6 I agree/I´m agree with you.
Meetings
96
3 Prepare your own ideas how to perform the following functions in a meeting
Thank people for coming.
Start the meeting on time.
State the objective.
Change the agenda.
Make people stick to the topic.
Give a personal opinion.
Ask for comments.
Close a meeting.
9.4 Minutes
In some companies, there are used meeting minutes. It is a written report about important
points that were discussed. They are to inform the interested people including the participants
of the meeting especially about the decisions made and the planned steps to be done.
There are some points included in the meeting minutes:
• Date and time of the meeting,
• Attendees and excused,
• Decisions made about each item on the agenda,
• New meeting date and time.
The minutes are usually sent by email to the relevant people. Sometimes other possibilities
are applied – the Cloud and others.
9.5 Characteristics of some cultures
Today in an international environment, it is not easy to arrange and lead a meeting with
positive outcomes not only because of different opinions but also because of cultural differences
(time, habits, leadership, etc.). It can be complicated to set up a regular time because
of different time zones if meeting online. The preparation of the meeting plays an
important role – and it is expected with Germans, Danes, Dutch but for example British,
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
97
Italians, Greek, Spanish think that what is said in a meeting is more important. For Greeks
and Italians participants written on the agenda are not so valid, somebody else could appear.
Punctuality can be a source of misunderstanding, too (Turkish). French, Belgians, Spanish
will expect strong control of a chair over the agenda and the discussion.
The Germans will have well-prepared contribution and they expect not be interrupted.
French contributions need logical approach prepared by a team of specialists but can be a
little late for a meeting. The Italians are innovative, complex, and creative and a family
model influences their business environment. The British are pragmatic and realistic. The
Spanish tend not to risk embarrassment, they do not want to be criticized.
It must be stated that much European business education is modelled on American theories
and teaching methods because their way was the most successful. Nevertheless, there
are still big differences in an approach to business. The Americans concentrate on business,
they expect professionalism and competence. Their communication is direct and assertive.
They expect everybody to work long hours as they do. Their meetings are prepared and if
it is needed they have the best team of experts with them. When meeting someone from
different background you should try to study their differences with the aim not to be surprised
and to let the meeting go smoothly with satisfactory results for both parties.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Meeting agenda is prepared in advance and send to attendees. T/F
2 Venue of a meeting is about participants. T/F
3 It is necessary to send meeting minutes to each participant. T/F
4 The chair concludes each point of the discussion and the meeting as well.
T/F
5 Interrupting in meetings belongs to relaxed atmosphere. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Complete the phrases with the correct prepositions:
1 into 2 for 3 with 4 in 5 over
Meetings
98
2 Choose the correct word
1 get started 2 purpose 3 From 4 you´re right 5 come back to 6 I agree
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 T 2 F 3 F 4 T 5 F
OTHER SOURCES
CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide to International
Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. Second edition. ISBN 978-
0-7494-5274-2.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter emphasized the most important points of a successful and efficient international
meeting. It taught how to create an agenda, it explained the role of a chair of a meeting.
It teaches useful phrases used in meetings. The chapter concludes with some remarks
about cultural differences.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
99
10 NEGOTIATING
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter is about efficiency in negotiations, which is needed not only in business but
in everyday situations as well. The chapter introduces types and stages of negotiations and
other segments of negotiating with the aim to help the students to understand the topic to
be able to succeed.
The chapter also includes some phrases needed in different parts of negotiations to be
possibly used for creating students´ own database of negotiation terminology.
The last part of the chapter emphasizes the cultural differences to have in mind before
and during negotiations because showing respect to the partners in negotiating and to their
culture values and habits can play more important role than the offer you have brought with
you.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To discuss types of negotiations,
• To learn about stages of negotiations,
• To practise how to be effective in negotiations,
• To strenghten the database of negotiation phrases,
• To understand some culture differences in negotiations.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Argument, bargain, bid, goal, need, negotiations, offer, skill, strategy
10.1Types of negotiation
When doing business, people negotiate all the time. The aim is to reach agreement or
compromise with positive outcomes for all parties and to avoid conflict at the same time.
The form of negotiations can be various, mainly because of technologies. However, meeting
face-to-face still plays an important role in today´s globalized market. This type of
Negotiating
100
negotiations is preferred at the beginning of cooperation or when serious problems, which
need to be explained in detail, occurred.
What is negotiation?
DEFINITION OF NEGOTIATIONS
Negotiation (also negotiations) is discussion aimed at reaching an agreement.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/negotiation
The purpose of negotiations can be as follows:
• Exploratory – the parties discuss possible areas of interest,
• Conciliatory – the parties try to resolve differences,
• Work towards a contract.
According to the outcomes, the following types of negotiations are defined:
• Distributive – when the outcomes are satisfactory only for one party, this type is also
called win-lose and future cooperation is not expected,
• Integrative – all parties cooperate with the aim to gain maximal benefits and include
their interests at the same time, they try to find alternatives and reach mutually acceptable
decision. This type is called win-win, an agreement-based negotiation. We
hope in future cooperation.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find suitable phrases for the following situations at the start of a negotiation:
1. Welcome the other side.
2. Have small talk.
3. Inform about plans for lunch.
4. Introduce your colleagues.
5. Explain general aim or purpose of the meeting.
6. Explain what your side wants from the meeting.
Purpose of
negotiati-
ons
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
101
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Think of any kind of negotiations that you may be involved in at work with colleagues
or with another company. Prepare your strategy using the questions bellow:
• How do you need to prepare for the negotiations?
• What is your objective in the negotiations?
• Supposing you will not get everything you want, what is your best realistic alterna-
tive?
• What is the level at which you could realistically settle?
10.2 Stages of the negotiation process
The process of negotiations can be divided into several parts:
1 Preparation,
2 Relationship building,
3 Discussion,
4 Clarification of goals,
5 Agreeing procedure,
6 Options,
7 Bidding,
8 Bargaining,
9 Concluding.
Preparation includes decisions on where and when negotiations will take place to negotiate
the topic, who will attend, how long it will take. You have to identify your minimum
requirements, decide what concessions you could make, know your strengths and weaknesses,
know your role in a team, and prepare any figures, calculations and support mate-
rials.
Preparation
of
negotiati-
ons
Negotiating
102
QUESTION
Decide how the negotiations could be more successful.
Relationship building helps the negotiations go smoothly in more relaxed atmosphere.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find suitable phrases for the following situations at the start of a negotiation:
7. Welcome the other side.
8. Have small talk.
9. Inform about plans for lunch.
10. Introduce your colleagues.
11. Explain general aim or purpose of the meeting.
12. Explain what your side wants from the meeting.
Discussion is about explaining how they see the case. Questioning, listening and clarifying
are very important at this stage.
Options giving is about brainstorming the ideas without evaluating them.
Bidding is the most important part of each negotiations with bargaining further offers
that are connected to certain conditions.
Concluding what has been said with win-win outcome as the best result when both
parties feel they have gained something positive.
HOW TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN NEGOTIATIONS
The success is affected by several components:
• Attitudes to the negotiations by both parties,
• Knowledge – getting ready is essential, the more you are prepared the more you can
get,
• Interpersonal skills – not everybody can be a good negotiator, with time you become
more experienced. Interpersonal skills include effective verbal communication,
listening, and the ability to reduce misunderstanding, being polite, effective
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
103
problem solving, and techniques of making decisions, assertiveness, and ability to
deal with difficult situations.
PHRASES FOR NEGOTIATIONS
I´m sure we will have a useful and productive meeting…..
I´d like to begin with a few words about our general expectations ….
May I outline our principal aims and objectives today ….
We have a formal agenda …..
There are three specific areas we would like to discuss. These are….
We have to decide ….
It is important for both of us that we agreed on ….
Handing over:
I´d like to finish there and give you the opportunity to reply to this.
I´d like to hand over to my colleague …., who has something to say about ….
Bargaining:
We can agree to that if ….
That is not acceptable if ….
Making concessions:
If you could … we could consider ….
On condition that we agree on … then we could …
We could offer you ….
Would you be interested in …?
Accepting:
We agree.
That seems acceptable.
Confirming:
Negotiating
104
Can we run through what we´ve agreed?
I´d like to confirm what we´ve said.
Summarizing:
I´d like to sum up the main points that we´ve talked about.
So, I´ll summarize the important points of our offer.
Can we summarize the proposals?
Dealing with conflict:
I think we should look at the points we agree on …
We should focus on the positive aspects ….
We should look at the benefits for both sides….
We hope you can see our point of view ….
Let us explain our position ….
Could you tell us why you feel like that?
I think we need to consider some new ideas ….
Rejecting:
I´m afraid we can´t ….
Before agreeing to that we would need …
Unfortunately, ….
I don´t think it would be acceptable for us …..
QUESTIONS
Choose the correct options
1 It´s ok with us so long as/ whereas you can supply the components by March.
2 If / Unless the specifications are right we´ll be happy.
3 We won´t accept that price if / unless you increase the quantity.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
105
4 We can offer a discount but only / however if you pay at the time of the order.
5 We can agree on that unless / on condition that the price is fixed for a year.
Rejection or agreement. Mark with an R or an A.
1 Unfortunately …. ____
2 We regret that …. ____
3 We´re pleased to say …. ____
4 Fortunately …. _____
5 I´m afraid ….. _____
6 Happily …. _____
7 It´s possible that …. _____
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Think of any kind of negotiations that you may be involved in at work with colleagues
or with another company. Prepare your strategy using the questions bellow:
• How do you need to prepare for the negotiations?
• What is your objective in the negotiations?
• Supposing you will not get everything you want, what is your best realistic alterna-
tive?
• What is the level at which you could realistically settle?
10.3 Characteristics of some cultures
When talking about negotiations with a partner from the different culture background,
in some companies it has become everyday routine. The thing is that the further our partner
is the more complicated negotiations can be. To be able to succeed needs a lot of practice,
includes lifelong learning and willingness to understand our partners. There is also a difference
in everyday communication and building a new relationship with a potential client.
Negotiating
106
What can be affected by culture:
• Interests,
• Priorities,
• Strategies.
There is still one important feature to be mentioned – body language. In some cultures,
to understand non-verbal behaviour is vital for negotiations (Japan).
Building mutual relationship is in some cultures where business is personal more important
than making a deal. In some countries, making small talk is not so important in
meetings but after them (for example in Finland you are going to be invited to sauna after
negotiations).
Be also aware of the fact that in some countries with given status cultures you have to
be very careful when choosing the people for your team (sometimes CEO is expected as a
partner for negotiating). You can be surprised when Americans, Australian or Dutch in
negotiations are very young. It is because of their acquired status culture.
Another feature that should be respected is if your partners are from group-oriented culture
(Japan, China, Arabic countries) or an individualist one (USA, Germany, and Britain).
Japanese culture is highly group-oriented and you cannot expect making decisions during
negotiations, everything is decided during consultation process called “nemawashi”.
“Keeping face” is another feature in Asian cultures and “No” is not the correct answer.
Do not forget about exchanging business cards and other details included in business
etiquette, especially about cultural differences mentioned in previous chapters.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Everyone present at the negotiations makes an opening statement. T/F
2 Not all negotiations have a formal agenda. T/F
3 Decide realistic maximum and minimum acceptable scores before the negotiations.
T/F
4 Conciliatory negotiations end with an agreement. T/F
5 You should be fair and cooperative, even during difficult bargaining. T/F
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
107
ANSWERS
Choose the correct options
1 so long as 2 If 3 unless 4 but only 5 on condition that
Rejection or agreement. Mark with an R or an A.
1 R 2 R 3 A 4 A 5 R 6 R 7 A
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F 2 T 3 T 4 F 5 F
OTHER SOURCES
HARKIOLAKIS, N. and D. HALKIAS, 2012. E-Negotiations. Networking and crosscultural
business transactions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-131-7143-772.
MOLE, J., 2003. Mind your manners. Managing business cultures in the new global
Europe. London: N. Brealey Publishing. 3rd
edition. ISBN 1-85788-314-4.
SAVICKI, V. 2023. Developing Intercultural Competence and Transformation: Theory,
Research, and Application in International Education. UK: Routledge. ISBN
9781000976892
VARNER, I. and L. BEAMER, 2010. Intercultural communication in global business.
5th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0073377742.
Negotiating
108
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter dealt with negotiations, their types, and different stages. It helped with some
facts important for satisfactory negotiations. The chapter also introduced some useful
phrases for various parts of negotiations. Some cultural differences in negotiating conclude
the chapter.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
109
11 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – BUSINESS DOCU-
MENTS
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter deals with skills in written communication as an important part of business
communication, which starts from the application process before joining a company. The
chapter explains how to create a cover letter and write a CV.
The following part practise writing emails including common phrases in emails and it
concentrates on writing reports.
The chapter also focuses on dealing with complaints to ensure satisfied customers.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To create a cover letter,
• To write a CV,
• To practise writing emails,
• To learn about reports,
• To understand how to handle complaints.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
CV, complaint, cover letter, email, report, vacancy
11.1Applying for a job
Each successful career in a company starts with an application procedure. Applicants
search for a position they are interested in and which can match their acquired education,
skills, knowledge and experience. Most people search for the vacancies on the Internet but
being recommended by a family and friends is still an efficient way for finding a dream
job. Social media play an active role in looking for a job as well. Nowadays a very popular
form of searching a suitable candidate for companies and a vacancy for applicants is
LinkedIn, social network for registered professionals where you create your career profile
Written communication – Business documents
110
and those who are addressed can contact you. It is advisable to create your profile, especially
if looking for a job or thinking about a new career.
Nowadays, companies have started to apply a new type of pre-selecting future employees
by chatbots. This is a special programme, which can help applicants with administrative
tasks collecting information about their experience, skills, knowledge and answering candidate´s
questions about the vacancy or the company. Thanks to this programme, a Human
resources department can focus on qualified candidates.
Another type of the recruitment procedure is to ask applicants to prepare a short video
about themselves or to have the first contact by phone or via SKYPE. It saves time because
the first impression is important or you can check candidate´s English knowledge, etc. without
meeting them in person.
When applying for a job it is important to study the requirements very carefully. Some
companies ask the applicants for their CV or resumé only but others prefer to have a
cover/covering letter and an application form to be attached, too.
COVER LETTER
It is a short letter, which explains why you are the right person for the advertised position,
that your skills and knowledge join the requirements perfectly.
TO REMEMBER
Think about your cover letter carefully because it is the first message to your future
employer. Do not forget to tailor it to the specific position you are applying for.
What should be included in a cover letter?
• Statement why you are applying for this advertised position,
I am writing to apply for the position of …. advertised on your website/ in …. .
• Introduce yourself, referring to your experience,
I have been working …… for six years…. I have gained wide experience in …. I
believe I am the right candidate for the job.
• Describe why you are the right person for this vacancy using the keywords from the
advert,
I perform well in ….., am a good team player.
• Give your availability.
I am available for interview …..
Types of
job appli-
cation
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
111
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 Choose the correct options:
1 Your skills/experience refers to your abilities – things you can do well – using a
particular piece of software, speaking a foreign language, being a team player.
2 Your skills/experience refers to your knowledge you get by practicing a particular
job or activity.
3 A/an applicant/candidate is anybody who sent a CV in response to a job advertise-
ment.
4 A/an applicant/candidate is somebody who is being considered for the job.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Search for a vacancy you are interested in and write your cover letter.
CV
DEFINITION OF CV
CV is:
A brief account of person´s education, qualifications, and previous occupations, typically
sent with a job application.
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cv
“CV” is used in Europe and “resume” in the USA. When preparing and writing your CV
follow the instructions given in the advertisement. The European Union to ensure transparency
of qualification and mobility of citizens in Europe started Europass, which includes
five documents:
• CV,
• Language passport,
Written communication – Business documents
112
• Europass mobility,
• Certificate supplement,
• Diploma supplement.
Thanks to the website Europass web portal, you can create your CV online. Some companies
prefer this type of CV and it is written in their requirements. It makes the recruitment
procedure faster. If it is not given, it is on your decision to use it or not.
What is included in a CV?
• Name, professional title, contact details,
• Personal profile – or personal statement with your career objective and professional
profile – say who you are, explain your career objective and what you can give to
the company.
• Experience and job history,
• Education and qualifications,
• Additional sections: key skills (technical skills, people skills, language skills, etc.),
interest and hobbies, which are relevant to the job.
TO REMEMBER
Focus on your achievements rather than personal qualities that cannot be
proved.
CHECK QUESTIONS
2 Complete the sentences with the words below:
Experience position updated vacancy
1 The word ………… is a formal way of saying “job”.
2 The word …………. means “a job that is available”.
3 Employers always want people with a lot of ………….
4 I´ve …………. My CV. Can you read it and give me some feedback?
Parts of
CV
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
113
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Prepare your own CV with the core information ready to be updated when it is
needed.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Some companies use a job application form. Search for the details, what is included
and why it is applied.
11.2 Writing e-mails
As mentioned above, the most popular form of business communication is tightly connected
with writing emails. This way of communication is popular with all kinds of business
because it is fast, economic, efficient. Emails are written and received every day from
different reasons. Writing emails is used not only for sending short messages concerning
the being solved problem but a lot of documents are sent online including agendas, minutes,
reports, invoices, advertisements, job applications, etc. Even agreements are sent for partner´s
approval in advance by email and in case they agree, only the last page with signature
is delivered to partners by post or courier.
To make emails effective needs good preparation to be able to use only brief and relevant
information. There is also the other negative side of writing emails. Sometimes people receive
so many emails that they do not have enough time for reading them. If you write an
important email, it is advisable to inform the addressee by phone or to ask them to confirm
the delivery.
SUBJECT
The subject of the email should be a short and clear summary of it. This is important for
attracting addressee´s attention and for looking up old emails in the folders.
EMAIL OPENING
In business, people usually write emails in a neutral style, which is simple, direct, brief
and friendly. There is also a more formal style that is polite with longer, standard expressions.
This style is used if you want to make a good impression or you want to ask a favour.
Email sub-
ject
Written communication – Business documents
114
If it is a neutral email start with Hi/Hello + first name. It depends on your relationship
to your partner. Formal emails start with Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms + family name.
INTRODUCING THE SUBJECT
The next part is the reason for writing.
Thank you for your email ….. .
Regarding our last conversation …… .
I´m writing about ….. .
I want to let you know …. .
BODY OF EMAIL
Asking for information:
Could you …..
Please send me ….. .
I´d like to know …. .
Asking for help:
Could you …. ?
Do you think you could ….. ?
Attach a document:
Please, find attached ….
Suggest action:
Let me know if ….. .
How about …. ?
Perhaps you could ….
CLOSING
Best wishes.
Kind regards.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
115
Please get back to me….
If you need any help, let me know.
TO REMEMBER
Formal emails do not use contractions, use longer words with a Latin origin, and use
indirect questions.
CHECK QUESTIONS
3 Formal or neutral:
1 A Thank you for your email of 15 April.
1 B Thanks for the email.
2 A Just a note to say….
2 B I am writing to let you know that….
3 A If you need anything else, just let me know.
3 B If you require any further information, do not hesitate to contact me.
4 A Thanks for your help.
4 B I appreciate your help.
5 A I look forward to hearing from you.
5 B I´m looking forward to hearing from you.
4 Choose the most suitable option:
Hello, Tom.
I´m writing to you 1 affecting/connecting/concerning the meeting that we 2 appointed/
arranged/decide for this Wednesday. I´m sorry but I won´t be able to make it. I have to
leave for Brussels. Can 3 we cancel/postpone/schedule the meeting until next week? I am
free any time Tuesday or Thursday.
Written communication – Business documents
116
I do apologize for any 4 advantage/inconvenience/unfortunate this may cause, and I´m
5 anticipating /looking forward/ waiting to 6 hear/hearing/listen from you.
BR
Anna
11.3 Reports
Writing business reports is one of the skills needed for successful communication in the
business environment. Business reports are applied in companies to provide an overview
about a certain situation, task, and performance, etc. with the aim to inform its readers
(supervisor, CEO, controllers, team leader and others) and in some cases to give possible
suggestions for improvement with outcomes beneficial for an organization. Moreover, reports
give an organization valuable information for planning its future steps in manage-
ment.
When writing a report, the audience, the purpose, the main message, and the structure
need to be considered.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Revise your vocabulary for describing trends.
11.4 Complaints
The aim of each business is a satisfied customer but we also need customers who complain
to have customer feedback. The reason for having dissatisfied clients is that they inform
you about the problem because most of dissatisfied customers leave without warning.
Complaints are the best opportunities for improving the product or service.
If a customer is complaining, you need to listen carefully to him/her and to do the best
to understand the problem. Then you must apologize and promise to resolve the complaint.
The next step is finding a solution and a follow-up contact is recommended.
Dealing with complaints is done via letters, mostly emails, blogs, social media, face-toface,
by phone. It needs a lot of tact and careful choice of expressions. Writing a letter of
complaint is still very important because of records for legal matters.
Handling
complaints
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
117
HANDLING COMPLAINTS
There are some phrases for handling complaints:
After investigating your complaint, we have realized that an error was made in our
….department.
We very much regret having given you cause for complaint.
Steps are being taken immediately to ensure that such mistakes do not occur in future.
Please accept our sincere/deepest apologies for this delay and the trouble it has caused.
Please allow me to apologize for ….
Your claim has been passed on to ….. who will get in touch with you soon.
We are deeply sorry that …
I am afraid we are not able to ….
If you have any further questions, do not hesitate to contact us.
If you have any other questions, feel free to contact us.
TO REMEMBER
When structuring a letter or an email of apology try to apply the SPASS model = situation
– problem – action – say sorry.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
5 Put the parts of an email of apology into the correct order:
1 We expect that from the upcoming week an interference free operational sequence will
once again be in place. We apologize once again and promise to maintain the high level of
performance you have come to expect from us in the future.
2 Yours sincerely,
3 Ms. Green
4 Dear Mr. Brown,
SPASS
model
Written communication – Business documents
118
5 Thank you for your email dated March 15, 2019. We would like to formally apologize
for any delays to your shipments which have occurred since the start-up of our new loading
system in Berlin.
6 We ask you to excuse these delays. As part of attempts to help you during this period,
we have asked that a hotline is set up to give you up-to-date information on any potential
disruptions. If required, we will also provide an extra truck delivery per day at no further
expense.
7 Operational delays are occurring which are then being compounded by the roll-out of
new delivery schedules. Customs has also had to adapt to the new situation, which is currently
set up only for part of the new system.
CHECK QUESTIONS
6 Find and correct the mistakes:
1 Do you think you would send me some informations about delivery conditions? I´m
wondering how can we insure the products to be delivered soon. We need the goods until
the end of the week.
2 Thank you for invite me to the conference. Would you mind to send me the directions
to the conference hall? Thank you. I look forward to see you.
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 I can prepare my cover letter and CV in advance and send them without tailoring.
T/F
2 Chatbot is a programme which helps only to answer candidate´s questions about the
company. T/F
3 Europass CV is the standardized CV used by the countries from the EU.
T/F
4 Writing emails is the most popular way of business communication.
T/F
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
119
5 Customer complaints are good feedback for the companies. T/F
ANSWERS
1 Choose the correct options:
1 skills 2 experience 3 an applicant 4 a candidate
2 Complete the sentences with the words below:
1 position 2 vacancy 3 experience 4 updated
3 Formal or neutral:
1A F, 1B N, 2A N, 2B F, 3A N, 3B F, 4A N, 4B F, 5A F, 5B N
4 Choose the most suitable option:
1 concerning 2 arranged 3 postpone 4 inconvenience 5 looking forward 6 hearing
5 Put the parts of an email of apology into the correct order:
4, 5,7,1,2,3
6 Find and correct the mistakes:
1 Do you think you could send me some information about delivery conditions? I´m
wondering how we can insure the products to be delivered soon. We need the goods by the
end of the week.
2 Thank you for inviting me to the conference. Would you mind sending me the directions
to the conference hall? Thank you. I look forward to seeing you.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 F 2 F 3 T 4 T 5 T
Written communication – Business documents
120
OTHER SOURCES
CANAVOR, N. 2019. Business writing today: A practical guide. London: Sage. 3rd
edition. ISBN 978-15-063-8832-8.
THILL, J. V., C.L. BOVEE, 2023. Excellence in Business Communication. US: Pearson.
ISBN 978-0131419650
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter was about written communication in business, it practised creating a cover
letter and CV, writing emails and reports. It helped with handling complaints to ensure
customer satisfaction.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
121
12 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION II – PRESS RELEASES
QUICK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter introduces some other writing skills needed in international business environment
that is being influenced by globalization.
The part about advertising explains the difference between international and global advertising
and their advantages and disadvantages. The companies choose the best strategies
for their businesses and brands.
The interest in a career in an international company starts from a job advertisement. Our
students can meet job advertising from both sides. The chapter presents what is included in
a job advertisement.
The chapter focuses on questionnaire as a method of obtaining feedback from customers
to provide them with the best product or service.
GOALS OF THE CHAPTER
• To introduce main points about international advertising,
• To understand what global advertising is,
• To be able to explain brand and brand awareness,
• To study job advertising,
• To explain how to create a questionnaire.
KEY WORDS OF THE CHAPTER
Advertising, advertisement, billboard, brand, brand awareness, questionnaire
Written communication II – Press releases
122
12.1Global advertising
What is international advertising?
It can be described as a part of advertising and international marketing, which studies
the similarities and differences in advertising among different nations. International advertising
also studies how one nation´s advertising can affect the other countries. Companies
try to inform target groups in different countries about themselves and their product or
service.
What is the difference in global and international advertising?
Because of globalization, companies need to maintain their advertising globally as well.
Their approach and strategy to advertising can be divided into:
• Global advertising – the same general message is used in all countries,
• International advertising – the message is modified to each country.
Each of the approaches has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of global advertising can be:
• Costs savings, which is especially important for smaller companies,
• Brand reinforcing with the same campaign in each country,
• Word-of- mouth is more effective.
Disadvantages of global advertising:
• Different social acceptance,
• Limits for product uses in each country,
• Poor translation can be a problem – in adverts informal language is used,
• Different cultural context,
• Cultural barriers – different sense of humour, even English-speaking countries cannot
understand,
• Different type of advertising effectiveness in different countries,
• Differences in cultural context – high context cultures – image, personal networks,
low context culture – verbal message.
Advantage of international advertising can be:
• Higher impact in each country.
Global ad-
vertising
International
adver-
tising
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
123
Disadvantages of international advertising:
• Cost – new campaigns have to created,
• Inconsistency.
Branding also plays an important role in globalization. Companies have to answer the
question of building a global brand or not.
TASK TO BE CONSIDERED
1 Advertising terminology – put the words and definitions together:
1 advertisement 2 advertising 3 billboard 4 brand 5 brand awareness 6 product
placement 7 viral marketing 8 word-of-mouth advertising
A occurs when customers tell other people about a product or service because they like
it
B is a public announcement about sth created to make people to purchase it
C occurs when a company spends money on the using their product in a film or TV.
D occurs when a company creates sth and encourages people to pass the message to
others on the Internet, for example by email
E the business of trying to persuade people to buy a product or service
F degree of consumer recognition of a product by its name
G the name given to a product
H a large outdoor sign used in advertising.
Branding
Advertising
termi-
nology
Written communication II – Press releases
124
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Could you name some brands with high brand awareness?
What are some popular logos?
Are you the customer with brand loyalty, which brands do you have loyalty to and
why?
12.2 Job advertising
A way how to attract a potential candidate and future employee is to prepare the advertisement
that will give them enough information about the position and is posted in the
most relevant places. In the past, a sign “help wanted” was the only possibility how to do
it. Then an advertisement in a newspaper appeared. Nowadays with the Internet arrival,
more and more companies use the advantages of online advertising. They can choose to:
• Place an advert on a company website,
• Pay for a radio advert,
• Pay for an advert to a job aggregator,
• Pay for a recruitment agency,
• Use social networks, etc.
• Place an advert on LinkedIn, or search it for suitable candidates,
There is still a form, which has not been mentioned, companies usually start their searching
internally. They also choose several options for the recruitment procedure at the same time.
JOB ADVERTISEMENT
How to write a good job advertisement?
• Make a good first impression,
• Job advert should be easily found,
• Use a simple language, it should be clear, brief,
• Give a summary of the position,
• Explain what experience, knowledge, skills and qualifications are needed,
• Choose an appropriate platform for placing the advert,
• Think about advert design.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
125
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
1 Have you ever searched for a job? What kind of job advertising did you use?
2 Create a job advert.
A job advert usually contains:
• The job title,
• Location,
• A job description,
• Qualification needed,
• Remuneration,
• Further details.
In the previous chapter about applying for a job, the use of a video job application is mentioned.
We want to emphasize that some companies choose a video for their own presentation
posted on a corporate website or social media to inform about company itself or other
important moments. It is also an important source of information for a job seeker. Job seekers
appreciate a corporate video as a good way of introduction a company with real people
who are not anonymous any more.
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find some job advertisements and describe them.
12.3 Questionnaire
As mentioned above a satisfied customer who repeats business is a goal of corporate
effort. To know if the customers are happy we can learn from them asking them for feedback
and getting them to suggest how you could improve your services or even discover
what you are particularly good at. One of the possibilities how to do it is to apply a questionnaire.
Business questionnaire can be applied to various types of information needed for
the corporate development, it can be used for market research, product or services assessment,
and other purposes with the goal of improvement.
Written communication II – Press releases
126
Once you have decided that a questionnaire is the method you want to use to gather data,
the content or topics it will include must be considered. Then some steps before creating a
questionnaire are needed:
• Define the terms,
• Select the information needs or hypotheses,
• Make sure you can get the information,
• Do not ask for information unless you can act on it,
• Target group,
• Writing questions.
When forming questions, you need to decide between open-ended and closed questions,
sometimes you can decide to apply multiple-choice questions because they are efficient.
Choose open-ended questions when you want to give the respondents the opportunity to
express opinions in their own words and you have the interest in and resources to interpret
the findings. Open-ended questions are easier to create. Apply closed questions for their
relative ease of scoring, analysis, and interpretation. It is more challenging to create them
because you need respondents to understand them in the same way to obtain relevant an-
swers.
The first question should be connected to survey´s purpose, objective questions come
before subjective ones, and relatively easy questions are put at the end. Questions should
proceed from the most familiar to the least. Place questions logically. You can apply a pilot
test.
A typical conclusion to survey´s activities is a written report of its purposes, methods,
results, conclusions, and recommendations. A survey report could be structured as follows:
• Purposes or objectives,
• Research Design,
• Methods,
• Respondents,
• List of tables and figures,
• Outcomes,
• Results,
• Conclusion,
• Recommendations,
• References.
Questi-
onnaire
creation
Questionnaire
re-
port
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
127
FOR INTERESTED PERSONS
Find some examples of business questionnaires. Have you ever prepared a business
questionnaire? Are you going to apply a questionnaire for your bachelor´s thesis?
QUESTIONS
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 Global advertising is a corporate strategy which is same for all countries.
T/F
2 Cultural context does not influence global advertising. T/F
3 Brand awareness is important in doing business. T/F
4 We use simple, clear language in job advertising. T/F
5 Open-ended questions are not suitable for explaining respondents´ opinions.
T/F
ANSWERS
1 Advertising terminology – put the words and definitions together:
A8, B1, C6, D7, E2, F5, G4, H3.
Decide if the following statements are true or false:
1 T, 2 F, 3 T, 4 T, 5 F
Written communication II – Press releases
128
OTHER SOURCES
FINK, A. 2017. How to conduct surveys. A step-by-step guide. London: Sage. ISBN
978-1-4833-7848-0.
MOOIJ, M. K., 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes.
Thousand Oaks: SAGE, ISBN 9781412970419.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The chapter dealt with advertising in international business environment in general, with
job advertising and using questionnaire as an effective way of obtaining feedback from
customers to learn about their needs with the aim to deliver a better product or service.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
129
THE LIST OF LITERATURE
[1] AKDERE M, ACHESON K. and Y. JIANG, 2021. An examination of the effectiveness
of virtual reality technology for intercultural competence development. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2021;82:109–120. doi: 10.1016/j.ijin-
trel.2021.03.009
[2] ALESSANDRA, T., 2017. The Four Zones of Interpersonal Space. [online] [20. 05.
2019]. Available from: https://atworkjax.wordpress.com/2012/04/09/the-four-
zones-of-interpersonal-space/
[3] ALNAP, 2019. Chapter 4: Communication techniques. [online] [05. 02. 2019].
Available from: https://www.urd.org/IMG/pdf/MP_GB_CHAPITRE4.pdf
[4] ADAIR, J., 2004. Efektivní komunikace. Praha: Alfa Publishing. ISBN 80-86851-
10-9.
[5] ANG, S. and L. V. Dyne, 2008. Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement,
and Applications. New York: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 987-0-7656-2262-4.
[6] ANONYMOUS, 2012. A Primer on39 Communication Studies. [online] [12. 12.
2018]. Available from https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-
communication-studies/s01-04-communication-competence.html
[7] ANONYMOUS, 2018. Kulturní inteligence: jak se vztahují k různým kulturám naší
psychologie. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from https://cs.baiug.org/cultural-
intelligence-how-we-relate-to-different-cultures-of-our-3133
[8] ANONYMOUS, 2019. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions. [online] [16. 01. 2019].
Available from https://is.mendelu.cz/eknihovna/opory/zobraz_cast.pl?cast=45070
[9] ASSIGNMENT HELP 4 ME, 2023. Importance and characteristics of cultural and
social behaviour. [online] [16. 09. 2023]. Available from https://assign-
menthelp4me.com/essay/culture-and-social-behaviour.html
[10] AYDIN, T., 2019. Negotiation in Business. [online] [16. 01. 2019]. Available
from http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~uras02/Hacettepe/4.sinif/Negotia-
tion/Business%20Communication.ppt
[11] BALUCHOVÁ, E., 2021. Building Cross-Cultural Awareness In Your
Team. [online] [28. 08. 2023]. Available from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/bu-
ilding-cross-cultural-awareness-your-team-eva-baluchova
[12] BARRETT, M. and S. C. DAVIS, 2008. Applying social identity and self –
categorization theories to children’s racial, ethnic, national and state identifications
and attitudes. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKown (Eds.), Handbook of race, racism
and the developingchild (pp. 72–110). Hoboken: Wiley.
[13] BARENTS PSYCHOLOGY PRACTICE, 2023. Culture shock stages. [online]
[28. 08. 2023]. Available from https://barendspsychology.com/culture-shock-
stages/
[14] BBC, 2018. Víte, co to je CQ? Závisí na něm váš pracovní výkon. A spoustu
dalšího. [online] [28. 01. 2019]. Available from http://absolvent.cz/clanek/vite-co-
je-cq-zavisi-na-nem-vas-pracovni-vykon-spoustu-dalsiho
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
130
[15] BERNDT, R., ALTOBELLI, C. F. and M. SANDER, 2007. Mezinárodní
marketingový management. Brno: Computer Press. ISBN 978-80-251-1641-8.
[16] BERTOLINI, M., 2016. Degrees of Cultural Awareness. [online] [28. 01.
2019]. Available from https://infogram.com/degrees-of-cultural-awareness-
1gdk8pdq0k442q0
[17] BHASIN, H., 2020. What is Culture? Types and Characteristics. [online]
[05. 03. 2019]. Available from https://www.marketing91.com/what-is-culture/
[18] BODY LANGUAGE – SCIENCE TOPIC. 2018. Body Language. [online]
[05. 03. 2019]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/topic/Body-Language
[19] BOUČKOVÁ, J. et al, 2003. Marketing. 1. vyd. Praha: C. H. Beck. ISBN
80–7179-577-1.
[20] BRYCHTOVÁ, L., 2021. Teorie kulturních dimenzí podle Geerta Hofstedeho.
[online] [20. 09. 2023]. Available from https://medium.com/design-
kisk/teorie-kulturn%C3%ADch-dimenz%C3%AD-podle-geerta-hofstedeho-
e33e694beb81
[21] BUSINESS-TO-YOU.COM, 2019. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.business-to-you.com/hofstedes-
cultural-dimensions
[22] BUSINESS COMMUNICATION ARTICLES, 2023. 4 Importance of
Cross-Cultural Communication. [online] [20. 09. 2023]. Available from
https://www.businesscommunicationarticles.com/importance-of-cross-cultural-
communication/
[23] CANAVOR, N., 2019. Business writing today: A practical guide. London:
Sage. ISBN 978-15-063-8832-8.
[24] CANNON, D., 2016. Introduction: The Nature of Leadership. [online] [30.
01. 2019]. Available from: https://slideplayer.com/slide/5676853/
[25] CHANNEL CROSSINGS S. R. O., 2019. Rozvoj řečových dovedností v cizím
jazyce. [online] [20. 02. 2019]. Available from http://www.kurzyprouci-
tele.cz/downloads/metodiky/Metodika_6_RecoveDovednosti.pdf
[26] CARTE, P. and C. FOX, 2008. Bridging the Culture Gap: A Practical Guide
to International Business Communication. London: Kogan Page Limited. ISBN
978-0-7494-5274-2.
[27] CLEARLY CULTURAL, 2023. Geert Hofstede cultural dimensions. [online]
[20. 08. 2023]. Available from https://clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cul-
tural-dimensions/
[28] COLLINSON, S. et al. 2020. Inernational Business. UK: Pearson. ISBN
9781292274171
[29] COUNCIL OF EUROPE, 2022. Building intercultural competence. [online]
[20. 09. 2023]. Available from https://www.coe.int/en/web/intercultural-
cities/intercultural-competence
[30] CROUCHER, S. M., 2017. Global Perspectives on Intercultural Communication.
New York and London: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317506539.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
131
[31] DANG, L.CH., 2016. Intercultural Communication: Differences between
Western and Asian perspective. [online] [20. 12. 2018]. Available from
https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/118823/Dang_Linh.pdf?seque-
nce=1
[32] D'ÁVILA, B., 2018. Alternative media and national identity. [online] [20.
08. 2023]. Available from https://medium.com/@medinous/alternative-media-and-
national-identity-82aded50e70e
[33] DĚDINA, J. and V. CEJTHAMR, 2005. Management a organizační chování.
Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s. ISBN 80-297-1300-4.
[34] DOYLE, A., 2018. Verbal Communication Skills List and Examples. [online]
[05. 02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.thebalancecareers.com/verbal-
communication-skills-list-2059698
[35] DYCZEWSKI, L. and Z. SLAWIK, 2016. Values – The Core of Culture.
[online] [29. 08. 2023]. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24920299
[36] EMERY, C. R. and R. G. TIAN, 2002. Cross-Cultural Issues in Internet
Marketing. In: Journal ofAmerican Academy of Business, Cambridge, 12, (2), p
217-225.
[37] FERGUSON, N., 2014. Civilizace: Západ a zbytek světa. Přeložil Emanuel
Geis-sler. 1. vydání. Praha: Argo. ISBN 978-80-257-1114-9.
[38] FINK, A. 2017. How to conduct surveys. A step-by-step guide. London:
Sage. ISBN 978-1-4833-7848-0.
[39] FLORES, J., 2018. Non-verbal Communication – Eye Contact. [online] [03.
03. 2019]. Available from: https://www.tes.com/lessons/AcHXVLbrenIoYA/non-
verbal-communication-eye-contact
[40] FOURBOUL, C. V., 2016. Strategic Human Resource Management in Europe.
[online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://slidepla-
yer.com/slide/6351498/
[41] GARDNER, R., 2023. 12 Types of Organizational Culture You Should
Know. . [online] [29. 08. 2023]. Available from: https://www.aihr.com/blog/types-
of-organizational-culture/
[42] GIBSON, R., 2002. Intercultural business communication. Oxford Univ.
Press. ISBN 978-019-4421-805.
[43] HALLER, M. and R. RESSLER, 2006. National and European identity: A
study of their meanings and interrelationships. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available
from: https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-sociologie-1-2006-4-page-
817.htm
[44] HAMPDEN-TURNER, C. et all. 2020. Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding
Diversity in Global Business. UK: Hachette. ISBN 9781529370133.
[45] HARKIOLAKIS, N. and D. HALKIAS, 2012. E-Negotiations. Networking
and cross-cultural business transactions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-131-7143-
772.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
132
[46] HEINZ, K., 2014. Intercultural Communication. Karviná: SU OPF. ISBN
978-80-7510-018-4.
[47] HUK, J., 2016. Hofstede a jeho výzkum – užitečný pomocník při řízení mezinárodních
týmů. [online] [29. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://www.pro-
jectman.cz/clanky/posts/101-hofstede-a-jeho-vyzkum-uzitecny-pomocnik-pri-ri-
zeni-mezinarodnich-tymu
[48] HOFSTEDE, G.and G. J. HOFSTEDE., 2007. Kultury a organizace: software
lidské mysli: spolupráce mezi kulturami a její důležitost pro přežití. Praha:
Linde. ISBN 978-80-86131-70-2.
[49] HOFSTEDE, G., HOFSTEDE, G. J., & MINKOV, M. 2010. Cultures and
organizations: Software of the mind, third edition (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Professi-
onal.
[50] HOFSTEDE, G., 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind.
London, UK: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-707474-2.
[51] HOFSTEDE INSIGHTS, 2019. Country comparison tool. [online] [15. 01.
2019]. Available from: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
[52] HUMANITIES RESEARCH CENTER, 2019. Výzkumná skupina „Tradice
a modernita na švu kultur“. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available from:
https://hrc.ff.cuni.cz/institut-pro-studium-strategickych-regionu-uk/badatelske-
tymy/centrum-pro-studium-politicke-filosofie-etiky-a-nabozenstvi-2-3-2-2-2-2-2-
3-2-2-2/
[53] INTER EXCHANGE, 2017. Dealing With Reverse Culture Shock. [online]
[15. 09. 2023]. Available from: https://www.interexchange.org/articles/visit-the-
usa/reverse-culture-shock/
[54] IVANOVOVÁ, J. and J. BŘICHŇÁČOVÁ, 2006. Fenomén kulturního
šoku, fáze adaptace na cizí prostředí. [online] [15. 09. 2023]. Available from:
https://inkluzivniskola.cz/sites/default/files/uploaded/064Ivanovova.pdf
[55] JAKLOVÁ, A., 2007. K základním pojmům interkulturní komunikace. In:
ORGOŇOVÁ, Olga, ed. Jazyk a komunikácia v súvislostiach II. Bratislava: Univerzita
Komenského, s. 295-301. ISBN 80-223-2023-4.
[56] JANDT, F. E., 2010. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities
in a Global Community. 6th ed. London: SAGE. ISBN 978-1-4129-7010-5.
[57] JANŠA, P., 2022. Teorie kulturních dimenzí podle Geerta Hofstedeho. [online]
[15. 09. 2023]. Available from: https://cz.linkedin.com/pulse/teorie-kul-
turn%C3%ADch-dimenz%C3%AD-podle-geerta-hofstedeho-petr-jan%C5%A1a
[58] JIŘINCOVÁ, B., 2010. Efektivní komunikace pro manažery. Praha: Grada
Publishing. ISBN. 978-80-247-1708-1.
[59] KAJZAR P. and M. CHYLKOVÁ, 2019. Intercultural Communication.
Karviná: SU OPF. ISBN 978-80-7510-376-5.
[60] KAJZAR, P., 2011. Cultural Intelligence. In Aktuálne otázky ekonomických
a humanitných vied ´10, Bratislava: STU. ISBN 978-80-227-3447-9.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
133
[61] KASALOVÁ, R., 2012. Komunikace [online] [15. 09. 2023]. Available
from: https://www.benepal.cz/files/project_2_file/KOMUNIKACE.PDF
[62] KHANNA, N., 2017. The role of culture in advertising: A comparative analysis
of selected Nike print advertisements from the U.S. and Japan. [online] [15.
01. 2019]. Available from http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/44961702/Master_The-
sis_MACC_.pdf.
[63] KINGTON, A., 2013. Proxemics and Communication Styles. [online] [22.
02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.interexchange.org/articles/career-training-
usa/2013/05/06/proxemics-and-communication-styles/
[64] KLUCKHOHN, F. R. and F. L. STRODTBECK, (1961). Variations in value
orientations. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
[65] KOC, E., GULNIL, A. and A. AR AKDENIZ, 2017. The potential implications
of indulgence and restraint on service encounters in tourism and hospitality.
[online] [17 01. 2019].
Available fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/319416545_
THE_POTENTIAL_IMPLICATIONS_OF_INDULGENCE_AND_RESTRA-
INT_ON_SERVICE_ENCOUNTERS_IN_TOURISM_AND_HOSPITALITY
[66] KOLMAN, L., 2001. Komunikace mezi kulturami: psychologie interkulturních
rozdílů. Praha : Česká zemědělská univerzita, Provozně ekonomická Fakulta.
ISBN 80-213-0735-8.
[67] KŘIVOHLAVÝ, J., 1988: Neverbální komunikace. Praha: SPN. ISBN 17-
297-87.
[68] KÜHLINGER, G. B. and J. FRIEDEL, 2007. Komunikační a jiné "měkké"
dovednosti. Praha: Grada Publishing, a. s. ISBN 978-80-247-2145-3.
[69] LEADING PERSONALITY, 2018. Read body language, signs and gestures.
[online] [30. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://leadingpersonality.word-
press.com/2013/05/28/read-body-language-signs-and-gestures/
[70] LEWIS, R., 2019. Cultural Classification: Linear-active. [online] [30. 01.
2019]. Available from: https://www.crossculture.com/about-us/the-model/linear-
active/
[71] LIVESCIENCE, 2022. What is Culture? [online] [19. 09. 2023]. Available
from: https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-cul-
ture.html
[72] LNĚNIČKA, L., 2011. Národní identita a nacionalismus. [online] [29. 01.
2019]. Available from:https://is.muni.cz/do/rect/el/estud/pedf/js11/geo/web/pa-
ges/narodni-identita-nacionalismus.html
[73] LUDDEN, J. M., 2001. Effective Communication Skills: Essential Skills for
Success in Work and Life. 2nd Edition, Jist Works, ISBN 978-1563708527.
[74] LUKÁŠOVÁ, R. 2010. Organizační kultura a její změna. Praha: Grada Publishing,
a. s. ISBN 978-80-247-2951-0.
[75] LUKÁŠOVÁ, R. and I. NOVÝ, 2004. Organizační kultura: od sdílených
hodnot a cílů k vyšší výkonnosti podniku. Praha: Grada, ISBN 80-247-0648-2.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
134
[76] LOBO, J., 2016. 11 Health benefits of hugging. [online] [03. 03. 2019].
Available from: http://webcloud32.au.syrahost.com/~discov29/the-science-of-hu-
gging-11-health-benefits-of-hugging/
[77] MADDEN, B. E., 2016. International Trade & Business Development. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/bronweneliza-
beth/bronwen-cultural-language-of-businessppt
[78] MAHADI, T. S. T. and S.M. JAFARI, 2012. Language and Culture. In: International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 2 No. 17; September
2012. ISSN 2221-0989.
[79] MACHKOVÁ, H., 2006. Mezinárodní marketing. Praha: Grada Publishing,
a.s. ISBN 802471678X.
[80] MARKGRAF, B., 2019. How to Apply Hofstede's Classification Scheme in
a Global Marketing Context. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available from https://small-
business.chron.com/apply-hofstedes-classification-scheme-global-marketing-con-
text-75008.html
[81] MATEICIUC, A., 2009. Interkulturální management a multikulturní kompetence.
Opava, SU.
[82] MEAD, R. and T. G. ANDREWS, 2009. International Management: Culture
and Beyond (4th ed.). Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-405-17399-5.
[83] MEDZIHORSKÝ, Š., 1991. Asertivita. 1. vyd. Praha 8: Elfa, ISBN 80–
900197-1-4
[84] MIKULÁŠTÍK, M., 2003. Komunikační dovednosti v praxi. Havlíčkův
Brod: Grada Publishing. ISBN 80-247-0650-4.
[85] MIND TOOLS CONTENT TEAM, 2018. The Seven Dimensions of Culture
Understanding and Managing Cultural Differences. [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/seven-dimensions.htm
[86] MOLE, J., 2003. Mind your manners. Managing business cultures in the
new global Europe. London: N. Brealey Publishing. 3rd
edition. ISBN 1-85788-314-
4.
[87] MOOIJ, M. K., 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding
Cultural Paradoxes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, ISBN 9781412970419.
[88] NIKLESOVÁ, D., 2006. Charakteristika, cíle a problémy interkulturní komunikace.
[online] [9. 12. 2018]. Available from https://www.vse.cz/polek/down-
load.php?jnl=aop&pdf=137.pdf
[89] NAU, N., 2018. Language and Culture. [online] [04. 02. 2019]. Available
from http://languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/language-and-culture/
[90] NOVÝ, I., 1996. Interkulturální management: Lidé, kultura a management.
1.vyd. Praha: Grada Publishing, ISBN 80-716-9260-3.
[91] NOVÝ, I. and S.-M. Syvia, 2015. Interkulturní komunikace v řízení a podnikání
česko – německá. Praha: Management Press. ISBN 978-80-7261-298-7.
[92] PALÁN, Z., 2018. Neverbální (nonverbální) komunikace. [online] [20. 02.
2019]. Available from: http://www.andromedia.cz/andragogicky-slovnik/never-
balni-non-verbalni-komunikace
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
135
[93] PATEL, H., 2014. Kinesics Communication Skills. [online] [25. 02. 2019].
Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/harshpatel199/kinesics-communica-
tion-skills
[94] PAZ, M., 2015. Cultural Intelligence and Its Importance in the Workplace.
[online] [04. 02. 2019]. Available from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cultural-
intelligence-its-importance-workplace-margot-paz
[95] PEACOCK, J. L., 1981. Durkheim and the Social Anthropology of Culture.
Social Forces. Oxford University Press. 59(4), p. 996-1008. ISSN 1534-7605.
[96] PERNICA, P., 2017. Nový pohled na kulturu. Logistika kultury. Praha: Academia.
ISBN 978-80-200-2730-6.
[97] PRENTICE, D. A. and D. T. MILLER, 2001. Cultural divides: understanding
and overcoming group conflict. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN
0871546892.
[98] PIATEK, K., 2015. Identity dilemmas. The case of repatriates from Kazakhstan
in Poland. Gdynia – Bielsko-Biała. ISBN 978-83-924718-1-3.
[99] PIŇOS, M., 2019. Asertivita jako strategie jednání. [online] [20. 02. 2019].
Available from: http://www.pinos.cz/text02.html
[100] PRŮCHA, J., 2010. Interkulturní komunikace. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s.
ISBN 978-80-247-3069-1.
[101] PRŮCHA, J., 2010. Interkulturní psychologie. Praha: Portál s.r.o. ISBN
978-80-7367-709-1.
[102] QUINTANILLA, K. M. and S. T. WAHL, 2011. Business and Professional
Communication. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6472-2.
[103] RASMUSSEN, L., 2021. Cross-Cultural Competence: Engage People from
any Culture. [online] [05. 08. 2023]. Available from: https://www.globalco-
gnition.org/cross-cultural-competence/
[104] ROMAN, K. and J. RAPHAELSON, 2000. Writing that works. How to
communicate effectively in business. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-
00-609-5643-1.
[105] RŮŽENA, L., 2010. Organizační kultura a její změna. Praha: Grada Publishing,
a.s. ISBN 978-80-247-2951-0.
[106] SAVICKI, V. 2023. Developing Intercultural Competence and Transformation:
Theory, Research, and Application in International Education. UK:
Routledge. ISBN 9781000976892
[107] SCHARMA, P., 2019. Types of Communication (With Diagram). [online]
[05. 02. 2019]. Available from: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ma-
nagement/communication/types-of-communication-with-diagram/70191
[108] SCHRIEFER, P., 2019. What’s the difference between multicultural, intercultural,
and cross-cultural communication? [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from https://springinstitute.org/whats-difference-multicultural-intercultural-cross-
cultural-communication/
[109] SLÁMOVÁ, H. 2017. Kultura. [online] [15. 01. 2019]. Available
from: www.kampomaturite.cz/%5Cdata%5CUSR_001_PICTURES%5CKUL-
TURA.DOC.rtf
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
136
[110] SMITH, A. D., 1991. National identity. London. New York: Penguin Books.
ISBN 0-87417-203-9.
[111] SMITH, T., 2011. 10 Verbal Communication Skills Worth Mastering. [online]
[10. 02. 2019]. Available from: http://www.littlethingsmat-
ter.com/blog/2010/11/30/10-verbal-communication-skills-worth-mastering/
[112] SRIVASTAVA, A., 2014. Haptics – Non verbal communication. [online]
[10. 02. 2019]. Available from: https://www.slideshare.net/ajiteshsrivastava58/hap-
tics-non-verbal-communication
[113] STUDY-BODY-LANGUAGE, 2016. Haptics. [online] [21. 01. 2019].
Available from: http://www.study-body-language.com/haptics.html
[114] SUTTIE, J., 2014. Is Your Immune System Secretly Choosing Your Friends?
[online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.mindful.org/is-your-immune-
system-secretly-choosing-friends/
[115] ŠINDELÁŘOVÁ, J. and S. ŠKODOVÁ, 2012. Interkulturní komunikace
jako dobový fenomén. Praha: MŠMT. ISBN 978-80-7414-559-9.
[116] ŠKARABELOVÁ, S., NESHYBOVÁ, J. and J. REKTOŘÍK, 2007. Ekonomika
kultury a masmédií. Brno, ISBN 978-80-210-4267-4
[117] ŠTĚPAŘ, V., 2012. Kultura obecné vymezení a dělení.
[online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://www.szs-pardubice.cz/file-down-
load/578/.
[118] SVĚTLÍK, J. 2011. Interkulturní komunikace. [online] [21. 01. 2019]. Available
from http://vorlova.bloger.cz/obrazky/vorlova.bloger.cz/interkulturni-komu-
nikace/sv-interkulturni-komunikace.pdf
[119] SVĚTLÍK, J. 2004. Vlív kulturních dimenzí na řízení školy. [online] [21. 09.
2023]. Available from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/230557366.pdf
[120] TARTAKOVSKY, E., 2010. National identity. [online] [21. 01. 2019].
Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303843693_Natio-
nal_Identity
[121] TESFAYE, A., 2019. Cultural sensitivity awareness in a multicultural environment.
[online] [25. 01. 2019]. Available from http://aiesec.no/cultural-sensi-
tivity-awareness-multicultural-environment/
[122] THILL, J. V., C.L. 2023. BOVEE, Excellence in Business Communication.
US: Pearson. ISBN 978-0131419650
[123] TROMPENAARS F. and CH. HAMPDEN-TURNER, 1997. Riding The
Waves of Culture, Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd., ISBN 185788176.
[124] HAMPDEN-TURNER, C., & TROMPENAARS, F. 2020. Riding the
Waves of Culture. (4th ed) John Murray Press.
[125] TULEJA, E., 2021. Intercultural communication for global business: How
leaders communicate for success. London: Routledge 2nd edition.
[126] QUINTANILLA, K. M. and S. T. WAHL, 2011. Business and Professional
Communication. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-6472-2.
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
137
[127] TIAN, K. and L. BORGES, 2011. Cross-Cultural Issues in Marketing
Communications: An Anthropological Perspective of International Business. In: International
Journal of China Marketing vol. 2(1). [online] [06. 01. 2019]. Available
from http://t.www.na-businesspress.com/IJCM/TianKWeb2_1_.pdf
[128] THOMAS, D. and K. INKSON, 2017. Cultural Intelligence: Surviving and
Thriving in the Global Village. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. ISBN: 9781626568679.
[129] TRINET TEAM, 2021. What is Organizational Culture and Why Is It Important.
[online] [04. 09. 2023]. Available from https://www.trinet.com/in-
sights/what-is-organizational-culture-and-why-is-it-important
[130] UKEssays, 2018. Cross Cultural Marketing Communications. . [online] [04.
09. 2023]. Available from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/cross-cultu-
ral-marketing-communications.php
[131] UNESCO, 2013. Intercultural Competences. [online] [04. 09. 2023]. Available
from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000219768
[132] URBAN, J. 2004. Kulturní rozdíly mají i výhody. [online] [04. 02. 2019].
Available from https://archiv.ihned.cz/c1-21849895-kulturni-rozdily-maji-i-vy-
hody
[133] USUNIER, J.-C., 1996. Marketing Across Cultures. 2. London; New York;
Toronto: Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-236175-2.
[134] VARNER, I. and L. BEAMER, 2010. Intercultural communication in
global business. 5th
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-
0073377742.
[135] VLACHOVÁ, K. and B. ŘEHÁKOVÁ, 2004. Národ, národní identita a
národní hrdost v Evropě. Czech Sociological Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Praha. ISSN
0038-0288.
[136] VOJTOVÁ, L., 2006. Ochrana a regenerace kulturních hodnot v území.
Brno: Masarykova universita. ISBN 80-210-4165-X.
[137] VYBÍRAL, Z., 2009. Psychologie komunikace. Praha: Portál. ISBN 978-80-
7367-387-1.
[138] VYMĚTAL, J., 2008. Průvodce úspěšnou komunikací: Efektivní komunikace
v praxi. Praha: Grada Publishing, a.s. ISBN 978-80-247-2614-4.
[139] WALIŃSKI, J. T., 2012. Enhancing intercultural communicative competence
in an online collaborative assessment environment: CEFcult project. [online]
[04. 09. 2023]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Byrams-model-
of-Intercultural-Communicative-Competence_fig1_282504595
[140] WATKINS, D. M., 2013. What Is Organizational Culture? And Why Should
We Care? [online] [04. 09. 2023]. Available from https://hbr.org/2013/05/what-is-
organizational-culture
[141] WRENCH, J., 2009. Messsages and Meanings. [online] [04. 02. 2019].
Available from https://www.slideshare.net/JasonSWrench/chapter-4-5-presenta-
tion
[142] YAAOQUBI, J. and K. REINECKE, (2019). The Use and Usefulness of
Cultural Dimensions in Product Development. [online] [15. 01. 2019].
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
138
Available from: https://homes.cs.washington.edu/~reinecke/Publications_fi-
les/CaseStudy_CHI2018.pdf
[143] ZIMMERMANN, K. A., 2017. What Is Culture?: Definition of Culture. [online]
[15. 01. 2019]. Available from: https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-
culture-definition-of-culture.html
[144] ZPÉVÁK, A., 2017. Co je co? Národ, nacionalismus a národní identita.
[online] [28. 01. 2019]. Available from: http://casopisargument.cz/2017/08/11/co-
je-co-narod-nacionalismus-a-narodni-identita/
Patrik Kajzar, Martina Chylková - Intercultural Communication
139
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY TEXT
After finalizing the study text, I will be able to:
• To react in different business situations in intercultural settings,
• To define intercultural communication,
• To speak about culture values,
• To explain culture dimensions,
• To compare culture shock and reverse culture shock,
• To describe the importance of non-verbal communication,
• To present clearly,
• To handle telephone conversation,
• To give an explanation of business etiquette,
• To prepare an agenda, minutes of a meeting,
• To succeed in negotiations,
• To solve complaints,
• To use appropriate terminology in business situations.
140
OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE ICONS
Study time Goals of the chapter
Key words Don’t forget to rest
Study guide Text guide
Quick preview Summary
Tutorials Definition
To remember Case study
Solved task Theorem
Check question Correspondence task
Answers Questions
Independent task Other sources
For interested persons Task to be considered
Název: Intercultural Communication
Autor: Ing, Patrik Kajzar, Ph.D., Mgr. Martina Chylková
Vydavatel: Slezská univerzita v Opavě
Obchodně podnikatelská fakulta v Karviné
Určeno: studentům SU OPF Karviná
Počet stran: 14140
Tato publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.