EVROPSKÁ UNIE Evropské strukturální a investiční fondy Operační program Výzkum, vývoj a vzdělávání M I N I S T E R S T V O Š K O L S T V Í , M L A D E 2 E A TĚLOVÝCHOVY Název projektu Rozvoj vzdělávání na Slezské univerzitě v Opavě Registrační číslo projektu CZ.02.2.69/0.0./0.0/16_015/0002400 Anglická gramatika Distanční studijní text Markéta Johnová Opava 2019 SLEZSKA UNIVERZITA FILOZOFICKO- PŘÍRODOVF.DECKA FAKULTA V OPAVĚ Obor: 0231 Osvojování si jazyka Klíčová slova: grammar, verb, verb phrase, grammar of the clause, word order, coordination, subordination, punctuation Anotace: Kurz Gramatika 2 navazuje na kurz Gramatika 1. Cílem kurzu je prohloubit a dále rozvíjet znalosti anglické mluvnice. Náplní kurzu jsou slovesa a slovesné fráze, modalita, čas, aspekt, a rod. Dalšími tématy jsou zápor ve větě, otázky, imperativ, shoda podmetu s přísudkem, slovní pořádek ve větě, typy vedlejších vět, interpunkce a psaní velkých písmen v angličtině. Autor: Mgr. Markéta Johnová, Ph.D. Toto dílo podléhá licenci: ) © (§) creative Commons Uveďte původ-Zachovejte licenci 4.0 Znění licence dostupné na: http://creativecommons.Org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Obsah ÚVODEM 5 RYCHLÝ NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY 6 1 VERBS 7 1.1 Verbs 7 1.2 Classification of verbs 8 1.2.1 Formal classification 8 1.2.2 Type classification 11 1.2.3 Grammatical classification 13 1.2.4 Semantic classification 13 1.3 Formation of verbs 14 1.4 Valency patterns 15 2 VARIATION OF THE VERB PHRASE 18 2.1 Tense 19 2.2 Aspect 20 2.3 Voice 21 2.4 Mood 22 2.5 Modality 24 2.6 Negation 26 3 WORD ORDER 29 3.1 B asic word order 29 3.2 Fronting 30 3.3 Subject-verb inversion 31 3.4 Existential there clauses 31 3.5 Dislocation 32 3.6 Clefting 32 4 GRAMMAR OF THE CLAUSE 34 4.1 Subject-verb concord 34 4.2 Interrogative clauses 38 4.3 Imperative clauses 40 4.4 Exclamative clauses 42 4.5 Finite vs non-finite clauses 42 3 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4.6 Verbless clauses 43 5 COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 44 5.1 Coordination and subordination 44 5.2 Relative clauses 45 5.2.1 Defining relative clauses 45 5.2.2 Non-defining relative clauses 46 5.3 Adverbial clauses 46 5.3.1 Clauses of time 46 5.3.2 Clauses of place 46 5.3.3 Clauses of cause and reason 47 5.3.4 Clause of purpose 47 5.3.5 Result clauses 47 5.3.6 Clauses of contrast 48 5.3.7 Concessive clauses 48 5.3.8 Clauses of similarity and comparison 49 5.3.9 Clauses of proportion 49 5.3.10 Clauses of preference 49 5.3.11 Clauses of exception 49 5.3.12 Comment clauses 49 5.3.13 Conditional clauses 50 6 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 52 6.1 Punctuation 52 6.2 Capitalization 55 LITERATURA 58 SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY 59 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON 60 4 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ÚVODEM Studijní opora je určena studentům bakalářského studijního programu Angličtina pro odbornou praxi jako podpůrný studijní materiál ke kurzu Gramatika 2. Sudijní opora obsahuje: • teoretický základ probíraného tématu s konkrétními příklady, • kontrolní cvičení, • klíč ke cvičením, • seznam citované a parafrázované literatury. Student nastuduje dané téma a vypracuje úkoly, pomocí kterých si ověří pochopení vysvětleného gramatického jevu. Po kontrolních cvičeních následuje klíč se správným řešením, díky kterému má student možnost sám vyhodnotit, zda probírané látce dostatečně porozuměl. 5 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika RYCHLÝ NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY Kurz je koncipován tak, aby měl po jeho absolvování student hlubší přehled o formě a použití slovesa a slovesné fráze, a dále o gramatice základních typů hlavních i vedlejších vět. Náplní kurzu bude kromě detailního rozboru slovesa coby klíčového prvku v anglické větě také výčet a podrobný popis variací slovesné fráze (čas, aspekt, rod, způsob, zápor, a modalita). V druhé části kurzu bude pozornost věnována slovosledu ve větách, shodě podmetu s přísudkem, otázkám, větám rozkazovacím a zvolacím. Závěrečné kapitoly představí typy vedlejších vět a specifika používání interpunkčních znamének a psaní velkých písmen v angličtině. Cílem tohoto kurzu je prohloubit a dále rozvinout znalosti získané v úvodním kurzu Úvod do gramatiky a v návazném kurzu Gramatika 1. 6 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 1 VERBS QUICK OVERVIEW The first chapter introduces the English verb. It offers an overview of different types of verbs and provides grammatical, formal, and semantic classification. It introduces the morphology of the regular verb and patterns of irregular verbs, shows the difference between lexical and auxiliary verbs, and introduces verb-formation processes and valency patterns. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn about different types of verbs • learn about grammatical classification of verbs • learn about formal classification of verbs • learn about semantic categories of verbs • learn about verb-formation processes • learn to identify and name different valency patterns KEYWORDS verb, regular verb, irregular verb, primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries, verb formation, valency patterns 1.1 Verbs Verbs represent a key element in every clause. They are the action words in the sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Without verbs it would be impossible to convey the message of the sentence. We can identify verbs based on their position in the sentence. Verbs typically follow subject and precede any other syntactic elements (complement, object, adverbial). The following subchapters will present different types of classification of verbs. 7 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 1.2 Classification of verbs 1.2.1 FORMAL CLASSIFICATION Formal classification looks at the morphological qualities of verbs. We identify the base form (the infinitive), the -s form (3rd person singular), the -ing form (present participle), the past form, and the -ed form (past participle). Regular verbs have four forms, because the past form and the past participle are identical. Irregular verbs have from five to eight forms. The most complex verb in English is the irregular verb be, which has eight forms {be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being). Table 1: Formal classification Form Example Function base work, eat infinitive, present tense except 3rd person sg., subjunctive -s form works, eats 3rd person sg present tense -ing parti- working, ea- progressive aspect, continuous tense ciple ting past form worked, ate simple past tense -ed parti- worked, eaten passive, perfect tense, -ed participle clauses ciple REGULAR VERBS The 3rd person singular of regular verbs has two spellings. Most verbs take -s, verbs ending in sibilants /s, z, J, 3, tf, d3/ take -es (e.g. kisses, touches, boxes). The 3rd person singular has three spoken realizations: • /-s/ after voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f, 9, h/ other than sibilants speaks, cuts, stops, laughs, treats • l-zl after voiced consonants lb, d, g, v, z, 5, 1, m, n, r, j / (other than sibilants) and all the vowels arrives, grows, digs, deals, lives, plays • l-\zl after sibilants /s, z, J, 3, tf, d3/ catches, buzzes, loses, expresses There are four verbs that have irregular -s form: do - does, go - goes, say - says, have - has. Verbs ending in consonant + y form the 3rd person singular by dropping -y and adding -ies (e.g. cry - cries, study - studies, try - tries). Verbs ending in vowel + y simply add -s (e.g. play - plays, stay - stays, toy - toys). The -ed spoken form has three spoken realisations: Ad/, /d/, and lil. • l-XJ after voiceless consonants other than lil 8 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika stopped, hoped, watched • l-ál after voiced consonants other than lál and all the vowels moved, played, tired, called, lived • /-id/ after HI and lál wanted, suggested, divided, included The -ing spoken form is a straightforward addition of [inj to the base without any changes in pronunciation. When it comes to spelling, the final consonant is doubled when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with the combination of consonant- vowel-consonant. drop dropping dropped admit admitting admitted stop stopping stopped There is no doubling when the preceding vowel is unstressed or spelled with two letters (e.g. order - ordered - ordering, enter - entered - entering). British English breaks the rule with respect to certain consonants (e.g. cancel - cancelled - cancelling, travel travelled, travelling, worship - worshipped - worshipping). American English follows the rule and does not double. In bases ending in a consonant + y, the -y is dropped and replaced with -ied to form the past form (e.g. cry - cried (crying), study - studied (studying)). Verbs ending in a vowel + y simply add -ed (e.g. play - played, stay - stayed). There are three exceptions to the rule: lay - laid, pay - paid, say - said. In bases ending in -ie, the -ie is replaced with -y- before the -ing inflection (e.g. die dying, lie - lying). The final -e is dropped before the -ing and -ed inflections (e.g. move - moved - moving, shave - shaved - shaving). Verbs with bases ending in ee, -ye, -oe, ge are exceptions to the rule, they do not drop -e before -ing but they drop it before -ed. agree agreeing agreed dye dyeing dyed toe toeing toed binge bingeing binged Verbs ending in -c take additional -k to -ing and -ed ending (e.g. traffic - trafficked trafficking) in order to keep the base pronunciation. COMPREHENSION CHECK Write and mark the pronunciation of the third person singular. avoid say draft worry voice employ lift link serve 9 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ring dry rent relax perform impress Write and mark the pronunciation of the -ing form of the following verbs. visit mimic spot commit file panic riot fry suffer split live refer singe lie intrigue Write and mark the pronunciation of the past tense. free admit kick profit train borrow trim vary imply seal laugh nod bury delay divide ANSWERS Write and mark the pronunciation of the third person singular. avoids l-zl says l-zl drafts l-sl worries l-zl voices I-YZI employs l-zl lifts l-sl links l-sl serves l-zl rings l-zl dries l-zl rents l-sl relaxes/-iz/ performs l-zl impresses/-iz/ Write and mark the pronunciation of the -ing form of the following verbs. visiting committing rioting splitting singeing mimicking filing frying living lying spotting panicking suffering referring intriguing Write and mark the pronunciation of the past tense. freed l-dl admitted /-id/ profited /-id/ trained l-dl trimmed l-dl varied l-dl sealed l-dl laughed l-tl buried l-dl delayed l-dl kicked l-M borrowed l-dl implied l-dl nodded /-id/ divided /-id/ IRREGULAR VERBS The majority of English verbs are regular. There are about 200 irregular verbs that are in everyday use. We recognise seven patterns of irregular verbs. 10 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Table 2: Irregular verbs Pattern Description Example 1 Verbs take a voiceless -t suffix to mark past tense and past participle, which replace the final -d in the base of the verb or are added to the base. build-built-built send-sent-sent spoil-spoilt-spoilt 2 Verbs take a -t or -d suffix to mark past tense or past participle, with a change in the base vowel. mean-meant-meant think-thought-thought sell-sold-sold 3 Verbs take the regular -ed suffix for past tense, but a -(e)n suffix for past participle. show-showed-shown 4 Verbs have no suffix used for the past tense, but there -(e)n ending that marks past participle; in addition, the base vowel changes in either the past tense, past participle, or both. give-gave-given know-knew-known see-saw-seen 5 Verbs have past tense and past participle marked only by a change in the base vowel. begin-began-begun come-came-come find-found-found 6 Verbs have past tense and past participle forms identical to the base form. cut-cut-cut hit-hit-hit 7 Verbs one of the forms is completely different. go-went-gone be-was/were-been Some irregular verbs have regular alternatives, sometimes with no difference in meaning or usage (e.g. speed - sped /speeded - sped /speeded). Sometimes the difference is in usage, e.g. learn - learnt - learnt preferred in BrE compared to learn - learned - learned used in AmE. In some cases the regular and irregular forms differ in meaning (e.g. hang hung / hanged - hung / hanged). 1.2.2 TYPE CLASSIFICATION Another classification looks at verbs by type, that is the function they fulfil in the sentence. The key distinction here is between lexical verbs, which convey the semantic meaning in the sentence, and auxiliary verbs, which add functional or grammatical meaning. While lexical verbs form an open category, auxiliary verbs represent a closed category with three primary auxiliary verbs and twelve modal auxiliary verbs. Table 3: Type classification Verbs Lexical (open class) Auxiliary (closed class) Lexical (open class) primary do, have, be modal will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, ought to, must, (need, dare) 11 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika PRIMARY AUXILIARIES As a lexical verb, the verb do has an activity meaning. It often combines with a noun phrase and forms a fixed idiomatic expression (e.g. to do the job, do the your best). As an auxiliary verb, do is used: • to make negatives in Present Simple and Past Simple / don't know what you mean. to make questions Why did you give him my number? to emphasize Do sit down. in short answers Do you read the papers every day? - Yes, I do. in tag questions She works in a lab, doesn't she? to avoid repetition He left school one year earlier than I did. The verb have in its lexical meaning shows physical possession, links a person or a thing to an abstract quality (e.g. We had a great fun at the party.), describes family connections (e.g. / have a sister and two brothers.), or describes eating and drinking (e.g. I'll have the steak.). As an auxiliary verb, it is used: • to form Present Perfect and Past Perfect What have you found so far? • in short answers Have you talked to him yet? - No, I haven't. • to avoid repetition I've never tried scuba diving and neither has my husband. • in tag questions with have got She hasn't got the answers, has she? The verb be as a lexical verb is used in the existential there is/are construction. It is also the most frequently used linking verb. As an auxiliary verb, it is used: • in the progressive aspect We 're leaving soon. • to form passive voice It's broken. • to express the modal meaning of a planned, necessary, or possible action What am I to tell him? Such examples are to be found everywhere. MODAL AUXILIARIES Just like primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries represent a closed system. The verbs can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, and ought to are true modal verbs. The verbs need and dare are called semi-modals, because they can be used as both modal and lexical verbs (e.g. We don't need to go just yet. We needn't go just yet.). Modal verbs have the following features in common: • there is no -s in the 3rd person singular • modal verbs are followed by bare infinitive (except ought to) 12 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika • negation is formed by adding the negative particle not • question is formed by means of inversion • modal verbs are used in short answers and in repetitions Modal verbs express various functions: probability (all modals), advice (must, should, ought to), obligation (must, need), prohibition (mustn't, can 'ť), ability (can), permission or request (can, could, may, might, would, need). 1.2.3 GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION Another way of looking at verbs is by their grammatical form. The grammatical categories we identify are tense, aspect, voice, and mood. Tense and aspect form grammatical tense. Table 4: Grammatical classification Tense present, past tense + aspect = grammatical tense Aspect simple, perfect, progressive, perfect progressive tense + aspect = grammatical tense Voice active, passive Mood indicative, imperative, subjunctive 1.2.4 SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION Generally we can say that verbs express an action or a state of being. A more detailed classification recognises several semantic categories of lexical verbs. Activity verbs refer to a volitional activity, that is an intentionally performed activity. Communication verbs involve activities describing speech and writing. Mental verbs refer to mental states and activities, these verbs do not involve a physical activity. The category of mental verbs comprises of a wide range of mental states or processes (e.g. think, believe, consider), emotions and attitudes (e.g. love, need), perceptions (e.g. feel, taste), or the receiving of communication (e.g. read, listen). Causative verbs indicate that someone or something caused something to happen. Verbs of occurrence refer to events that occur without an agent. Verbs of existence or relationship refer to the state of existence or relationship. Verbs of aspect indicate a change in the progress of an event or an activity. Activity and mental verbs are the most commonly used lexical verbs in English (say, get, go, know, think, see, make, come, take, want, give, mean). 13 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Table 5: Semantic classification Category Definition Example Activity verbs indicate physical activity bring, buy, get, come, give, go, leave, make, play, run, take, show, work Communication verbs indicate speech and writing ask, describe, speak, tell, thank, write Mental verbs indicate mental states and activties believe, expect, feel, remember, want, wonder Causative verbs indicate an event that was caused to happen by somebody or something get, have, let, help, allow Verbs of occurren- ce indicate an even that happened without an evident cause occur, happen, become, develop Verbs of existence and relationship indicate the state of existence or relationship appear, seem, exist, indi- cate Verbs of aspect indicate a change begin, continue, start, stop 1.3 Formation of verbs New verbs are formed in English by means of the three major word-formation processes: derivation, conversion, and compounding. Idiomatic expressions also act as single verbs. DERIVATION Table 6: Derivational prefixes Prefix Meaning Example re- again reattach, rebuild, redefine, refinance dis- opposite, apart disarm, disconnect, dislike, disallow over- too much overbook, overcome, overeat, overheat un- opposite, in reverse undo, uncover, unfold, unload, unpack mis- wrongly, poorly misinterpret, miscalculate, misinform out- to go over outdo, outgrow, outweigh be- behead, befriend, belittle co- to exist together coexist, co-star de- in reverse decode, defrost, devaluate fore- in advance foretell, foresee inter- in between interact, interconnect pre- in advance pretest, prepack, prewash sub- subcontract, subdivide, sublet, subtitle trans- transform, transplant under- undergo, undercut, underdevelop 14 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Table 7: Derivational suffixes Suffix Example -ate activate, cultivate, assassinate, regulate -en frighten, widen, soften, blacken, awaken -ify identify, specify, qualify, simplify, notify -ise (BrE) / -ize (AmE) realise, recognise, modernise, energise CONVERSION The process of conversion typically involves the change of noun into a verb (e.g. saw, nurse, hand, wire, mask, mail, bottle). Sometimes there is also a change in pronunciation. The stress shifts from the first syllable in noun or adjective to the second syllable in a verb. NOUN/ADJ VERB 'subject —* sub 'ject 'object —* ob ject 'export —* ex 'port 'permit —* per 'mit 'perfect —* perfect COMPOUNDING Typical compound verb-forming combinations are verb + verb (e.g. stir-fry, freezedry), noun + verb (e.g. hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean), or adjective + verb (e.g. dry-clean, whitewash). MULTI-WORD LEXICAL VERBS Multi-word units act as a single verb. These combinations have an idiomatic meaning, that is they only work as a unit. The typical combinations are: • phrasal verbs: verb + adverbial particle carry out, find out, pick up, come over, break down • prepositional verbs: verb + preposition look at, talk about, listen to, applyfor, ask for • phrasal-prepositional verbs: verb + adverbial particle + preposition get away with, get out of, put up with, get back to, come up with 1.4 Valency patterns Valency is the capacity of a verb to combine with other elements in the sentence. It is the verb in the sentence that determines whether the sentence requires a complement or a object for it to convey a complete thought. There are three valency patterns in English. 15 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika TRANSITIVE VERBS Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete its meaning in the sentence. The action of the verb is transferred onto an object. The direct object can be found by asking a question about the action, that is who or what is affected by the action of the verb. Depending on the sentence structure, we identify three types of transitives: 1. monotransitives S - V - Od They considered [our proposal]. 2. ditransitives S - V - Oi - Od or S - V - Od - Oprep She gave [him] [a dirty look]. He threw [the ball] [to Helen]. 3. complex transitive S - V - Od - Co We found the guard [sleeping] [by the gate]. INTRANSITIVE VERBS Intransitive verbs do not require an object. The action of the verb in the sentence ends or is modified by an adverbial. We arrived late [at the meeting]. Aplace The crowd moved [angrily][across thefield]. Amanner, Aplace LINKING (COPULAR) VERBS Linking (copular) verbs connect the subject of the sentence to subject complement. Typical linking verbs are verbs of sensation (feel, look, smell, sound, taste), verbs of existence (be, seem, appear, remain, keep, stay), or verbs of result (become, get, grow, turn). The meal smelled [delicious]. Cs He looked [incredibly uncomfortable]. Cs Although certain verbs tend to appear more frequently in a particular valency pattern, is quite common for a verb to act as transitive in one sentence, but intransitive or linking in another. The dog smelled [thefood]. Od transitive The dog smelled. intransitive The dog smelled [nice]. Cs linking COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the verbs in the sentences as transitive, intransitive or linking. 1. My little brother acts crazy sometimes. 2. I sold some old books at the fair. 3. The test proved more difficult than we had imagined. 16 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4. Thousands of cranes will return in the spring. 5. I understood all the questions. 6. I found the necklace at the bottom of the drawer. 7. The security guard was snoring loudly. 8. The rubbish in the street smelled bad. 9. Motherhood has really changed her. 10.1 felt refreshed after the nap. ANSWERS Identify the verbs in the sentences as transitive, intransitive or linking. 1. My little brother acts crazy sometimes. linking 2. I sold some old books at the fair. transitive 3. The test proved more difficult than we had imagined. linking, intransitive 4. Thousands of cranes will return in the spring. intransitive 5. I understood all the questions. transitive 6. I found the necklace at the bottom of the drawer. transitive 7. The security guard was snoring loudly. intransitive 8. The rubbish in the street smelled bad. linking 9. Motherhood has really changed her. transitive 10. I felt refreshed after the nap. intransitive SUMMARY In the first chapter we looked at the basic categorisation of the English verb. You learnt about different types of verbs and you now understand the verb form a grammatical, formal, and semantic point of view. You learnt about the morphology of the regular verb and patterns of irregular verbs, you know the difference between lexical and auxiliary verbs. You are familiar with the verb-formation processes and can recognise different types of verbs based on their valency pattern. 17 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2 VARIATION OF THE VERB PHRASE QUICK OVERVIEW The second chapter introduces the six variations in the structure of the English verb phrase, which can be combined in numerous ways to form a number of different structures. The chapters presents the issue of tense, aspect, voice, mood, modality, and nega- tion. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn about the six variations in the structure of the verb phrase • learn about the present and past tense of the English verb • practise recognising the simple, perfect, progressive and perfect progressive aspect • learn the difference in usage of the active and passive voice • learn about the difference between mood and modality • learn about the principles of negation in English KEYWORDS verb phrase, tense, aspect, voice, mood, modality, negation There are six kind of variations in the structure of the verb phrase. These structures can be combined in numerous ways to form a number of different structures. Table 8: Variation of the verb phrase Tense present, past Aspect unmarked (simple), perfect, progressive, perfect progressive Voice active, passive Mood indicative, imperative, subjunctive Modality unmarked (tensed), modal Negation positive, negative 18 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2.1 Tense DEFINITIONS "Traditionally, tense is defined as a grammatical system which is used by languages to encode (or grammaticalize) the time at which a situation denoted by a verb is viewed as taking place." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 414). Tense refers to the absolute location of an event or action in time. Traditionally, tense is marked by an inflection of the verb. The English verb can only express present or past. Reference to other times and the idea of grammatical tense is extended to include other variations of the verb phrase, namely aspect and voice. There is no inflection to mark future tense on verbs in English, future is therefore formed by a combination of the modal will + lexical verb, and by other structures (going to + inf, present simple, will be + ing form, be about to). The table below shows the standard grammatical tenses in simple and continuous form, both in active and passive voice. The continuous forms of Present Perfect, Past Perfect and Future Perfect in passive can be formed, but are unlikely to be used. Table 9: Grammatical tenses in English Active Passive Simple Continuous Simple Continuous Present / make cakes. / am making cakes. Cakes are made. Cakes are being made. Present Perfect I've made cakes. I've been making cakes. Cakes have been made. Cakes have been being made. Past I made cakes. I was making cakes. Cakes were made. Cakes were being made. Past Per- fect I had made cakes. I had been making cakes. Cakes had been made. Cakes had been being made. Future I will make cakes. I will be making cakes. Cakes will be made. Cakes will be being made. Future Perfect I will have made cakes I will have been making cakes. Cakes will have been made. Cakes will have been being made. 19 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2.2 Aspect "A category of grammar used to describe how a situation, as expressed by a verb, or by a verb in combination with its arguments, unfolds over time." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner2014, 35). While tense refers to an absolute location of an event or action in time, aspect refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time. Aspect defines the temporal flow of a given action, event, or state. It indicates the speaker's perspective of time, particularly whether they see the action as finished or still in progress. The two aspects in English are therefore perfect and progressive which then expand to an unmarked, simple aspect, and a combination of the first two, that is perfectprogressive aspect. SIMPLE ASPECT Simple aspect puts no emphasis on a completed or on-going action. Simple aspect is used to form simple past tense, simple present tense, and simple future (will + inf). We watched the baloon slowly inflate and then take off. She is so sure of herself I don't know how she does it. I will email you as soon as I have news. PERFECT ASPECT Perfect aspect reflects a finished, bounded action or event. It is used to form present perfect simple, past perfect simple, and future perfect simple (will have + -ed). We've talked about this. The shop had closed by the time we got there. I will have finished dinner by the time my husband gets home. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT Progressive aspect is used to mark and on-going, unbounded action or event. It is used to form present continuous, past continuous and future continuous (will be + ing). Shhh, the baby's sleeping. The children were splashing around in the swimming pool. This time tomorrow we '11 be swimming in the sea. 20 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika PERFECT PROGRESSIVE ASPECT Perfect progressive aspect is used to refer to an on-going, but then finished action or event. It is used to form present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, and future perfect continuous (will have been + ing). They've been going outfor two months now. He 'd been stealing the apples before the owner of the orchard arrived. By the time he gets here we '11 have been waitingfor almost an hour. 2.3 Voice English recognises the active and passive voice. The active voice means that the subject of the sentence performs the action denoted by the verb. It is the more common, unmarked voice, typically used in spoken and informal English. Certain verbs appear more frequently in the active voice (e.g. like, love, hate, hesitate, mind, quit, reply, try, want, wonder, wish). The passive voice reflects the situation when the subject is being acted upon the verb. The passive is formed by the combination of the verb be + past participle, and in informal English also the combination of get + past participle (e.g. She got married last year. He got stuck and didn't know what to say.) Passive is used particularly in formal, written English for the following reasons: • to avoid the agent when it is o unknown This book's been damaged. o unimportant You will be introduced to the audience. o obvious The thief was arrested. o refers to people in general These stories have been told since the dawn ofages. o when we wish to avoid the agent Something should be done about this. • to emphasise the agent by placing it at the end of the clause (by construction) This document was approved by the President. Among the verbs that typically appear in the passive voice are be born, based on, situated, entitled, or classified. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify all verb phrases and decide which tense, aspect and voice they are marked for. 1. Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived? 2. She was arrested outside an all-night gas station. 21 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3. I had been raised by loving parents in a secure environment. 4. Are you working on anything interesting now? 5. Socrates was quickly becoming my mentor and friend. 6. It has been difficult at times. 7. I have been travelling through Europe since June. 8. She is really getting on my nerves. 9. All the books were burnt at the stakes like witches. 10. He's being interviewed at the moment. ANSWERS Identify all verb phrases and decide which tense, aspect and voice they are marked for. 1. Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived? past perfect progressive active past simple active 2. She was arrested outside an all-night gas station. past simple passive 3. I had been raised by loving parents in a secure environment. past perfect active 4. Are you working on anything interesting now? 5. Socrates was quickly becoming my mentor and friend. 6 7 8 9 10 present progressive active It has been difficult at times. I have been travelling through Europe since June. She is really getting on my nerves. All the books were burnt at the stakes like witches. He's being interviewed at the moment. past progressive active present perfect active present perfect progressive active present progressive active past simple passive present progressive passive 2.4 Mood DEFINITIONS "One of the formal grammatical categories into which verb forms are classified, indicating whether the clause in which the verb occurs expresses a fact, command, hypothesis, etc." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 256). Mood is a grammatical feature of finite verbs, which is used to signal modality. Verbal inflections allow speaker to express their attitude to what they are saying. There are three types of mood in English. 22 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika INDICATIVE MOOD The indicative mood is the most common type of mood. It is used to make statements and provide information (via the means of declarative sentences) or to ask questions and make inquiries (via the means of interrogative sentences). Joe will pick up the boxes later today. He didn't know you'd called. Did he tell you where the man lives? IMPERATIVE MOOD We use the imperative mood to give orders, make requests, and grant or deny permission. We use imperative sentences to convey imperative mood. Please take those boxes and drop them off at the main office. Don't do that! Turn right at the crossroads. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD The subjunctive is the least frequently used mood in present-day English. We use the subjunctive in conditional clauses (e.g. If I were you, I'd hide it. He'd let us know if he were planning to arrive late.), in wish clauses (e.g. If only he were here with us. I wish it were summer already.) and in depended clauses that express a wish, possibility, suggestion, proposal, necessity, etc. after verbs advise, ask, command, propose, suggest, recommend, request, urge. The subjunctive is formed by the base form of the verb in every person. Therefore, the present subjunctive is formed by dropping the -s in the 3rd person singular. We suggest that Mr Beaty move the car out of the no parking zone. Is it important that we be there ? Negative is formed by placing not before the base of the verb. The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting. The company asked that employees not make personal calls during business hours. Passive is formed by the base of the verb be + past participle of the lexical verb. Jake recommended that Susan be hired immediately. Chrisine demanded that I be allowed to take part in the negotiations. The present continuous is formed by the base of the verb be + ing participle. It is crucial that a car be waitingfor the boss outside when he gets here. 23 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika The past subjunctive is indistinguishable from the past indicative, except for the verb be, which takes the form were in all persons. The past subjunctive is typically used for unreal, hypothetical situations (conditional and wish clauses). My headfelt as if it were split open. Try to imagine he were here. 2.5 Modality DEFINITIONS "The semantic concept of modality is concerned with the expression of notions such as possibility, probability, necessity, likelihood, obligation, permission, and intention, typically by modal auxiliary verbs, but also by other linguistic means (e.g. modal adjectives, adverbs, and nouns)." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 252). Modality is a semantic notion relating to the speaker's subjective attitude to what is being said. We use a specific type of mood (grammatical form of a sentence) to express modality (semantic aspect). One way of looking at modality is by the function of the utterance. We identify two types of modality. EPISTEMIC MODALITY Epistemic modality expresses various degrees of probability. It communicates the level of certainty or evidence the speaker has for their proposition. We can use modal verbs to express epistemic modality, but there are other ways of communicating it. / might regret this later. These letters may not have been meantfor me. Maybe there is something in itfor me too. He couldn't have been more than 12. I'm sure she '11 call tonight. DEONTIC MODALITY Deontic modality expresses ability, permission, willingness, obligation, duty, or inten- tion. / couldn't give him what he wanted, so we went our separate ways. You must get a visa to enter Canada. We '11 be able to help you out. She had to leave work early yesterday. 24 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika The same words can be used to express both epistemic and deontic modality, the meaning is distinguished from context. The difference becomes evident when the sentence is in past or when it is negative. In epistemic modality the past with modal verbs is formed by the modal verb + have + past participle (e.g. You must've been tired after walking all day.), in deontic modality the past is often expressed by means of related verbs (e.g. He had to sell his house to pay off his debts.). Similarly, negation can differ in case of epistemic and deontic modality. Epistemic It must be Peter. It can't be Peter. Deontic / must go now. I musn't / needn't / don't have to go. COMPREHENSION CHECK Translate the sentences using modal verbs and decide whether they express epistemic or deontic modality. 1. Lžeš, nemohla jsi s ním mluvit, celý týden nebyl v kanceláři. 2. Musím se jí na to zeptat. 3. Taky jsme nemuseli všechno platit předem. 4. To od něj bylo pěkné, to j si musela mít radost! 5. Bylo tam tolik kouře, že j sem nemohla dýchat. 6. Nemohu najít její telefonní číslo. Musela mi ho zapomenout dát. 7. Tak se styděl, že se na mě ani nemohl podívat. 8. Nic zlého se nestalo, ale mohl se zranit. 9. Nemuseli jsme platit, vstup byl zdarma. ANSWERS Translate the sentences using modal verbs and decide whether they express epistemic or deontic modality. 1. You're lying, you can't/couldn't have talked to him, he wasn't in the office the whole day. E 2. I must ask her about it. D 3. We needn't have paid for everything in advance. D 4. That was nice of him, she must've been happy! E 5. There was so much smoke there I couldn't breathe. D 6. I can't find her phone number. She must've forgotten to give it to me. E 7. He felt so embarrassed he couldn't even look at me. D 8. Nothing bad happened, but he could've been hurt. E 9. We didn't have to pay, there was a free entry. D 25 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2.6 Negation Negation is twice as more common in conversation as it is in written registers. Negation can happen in a number of ways. We can use: • primary negative words no, not, neither, never, nobody, none, no one, nothing, nowhere • words that form negative statements few, hardly, barely, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom • negative prefixes de-, dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir-, mis-, non-, un• negative suffix -less In standard English there is usually only one negation in a sentence. There is also a tendency to express the negation as early in a sentence as possible (e.g. Anybody isn't there. Nobody is here). Negative sentences with a negative object or adverbial often have two ways of negation. He wasn't anywhere yesterday. He was nowhere yesterday, (less common) You didn't see anything. You saw nothing, (less common, emphasized) When introducing negative ideas with verbs think, believe, imagine, suppose, or except, the negation is expressed in the main clause. / don't think you 're right. I don't suppose you'd like to work overtime this week. I don't expect him to contact me. The only exceptions to the rule are the verbs hope and wish. I hope you aren't too tired. I wish I hadn't sent that email to Jane. A negative word standing on its own makes more impact than when attached to a verb. E.g. No dogs are allowed in my house, is more forceful than Dogs aren't allowed in my house. Sometimes the choice of no-/not- negation can change the meaning of an utterance. Compare for example She's not a teacher, with She's no teacher. In the first case the person has another job, in the second case she is a teacher, but not a very good one. Double negation can be used in standard English to make a forceful affirmative (two negatives make a positive) (e.g. / cannot not agree with you. = I agree with you.) or to express ideas cautiously (e.g. The government is not blameless. = they are to blame). Double negation can often be seen in colloquial English (e.g. You better not never tell nobody but God. I won't use no double negatives. Iain't never heard of no licence). 26 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika COMPREHENSION CHECK Translate the following negative sentences. 1. Nikam nechoď. 2. Nemohli j sme nic neříct. 3. Nedovol jí s tebou takhle mluvit. 4. Myslím, že mě nemá rád. 5. Nikdo tam se mnou nikdy nemluvil. 6. Nebýval u nás dřív na návštěvě tak často. 7. Tuto knížku neprodávají nikde ve městě. 8. Nemůžeme vám nijak pomoci. 9. Tohle není neobvyklá žádost. 10. Nenechme se příliš unést. ANSWERS Translate the following negative sentences. 1. Don't go anywhere. 2. We couldn't say nothing, (double negative) 3. Don't let her talk to you like that. 4. I don't think he likes me. 5. No one ever talked to me there. 6. He didn't use to visit us so often. 7. They don't sell the book anywhere in town. 8. We can't help you in any way. 9. This is not an unusual request. 10. Let's not get / Don't let's get too carried away. SUMMARY In the second chapter you learnt about the six variations in the structure of the English verb phrase. You know that the English verb can only express present or past via inflection. You can now form the grammatical tenses by combining tense, aspect, and voice. You can distinguish between mood and modality and you know the difference between indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood, and between the epistemic and deontic modality. You can also form negation in sentence. 27 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika 28 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3 WORD ORDER The third chapter deals with the basic word order in the English sentence. It compares the Czech and English word order and points out the differences between the two languages. It further introduces the syntactic devices we use to change the standard word order (fronting, S-V inversion, existential there clauses, dislocation, clefting). AIMS In this chapter you will • learn about the basic word order in English • learn about reasons why the basic word order is changed • learn to identify and use fronting • learn to identify and use S-V inversion • learn to identify and use existential there clauses • learn to distinguish dislocation from clefting KEYWORDS basic word order, fronting, S-V inversion, existential there clauses, dislocation, clefting 3.1 Basic word order The basic word order in English is Subject - Verb - Object - Adverbial of manner Adverbial of place - Adverbial of time, the so called SVOMPT as demonstrated below. SUBJECT VERB OBJECT MANNER PLACE TIME • T Oi Od Oprep ADVERBIAL 29 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Compared to Czech, the English word order is much more set, which is given by the fact that in English grammatical relations are expressed through word order, while Czech uses the means of declination and conjugation. However, just as the Czech word order is not completely free, the English word order is not completely rigid. Within the set standard order, we can adapt clauses and move phrases around to fit the requirements of com- munication. The major factors that influence word order are information flow, focus end emphasis, weight, and contrast. There is a strong tendency to start a sentence with old information and work our way towards new information. This logical distribution helps the receiver build on what they already know as well as remember the new information more easily as it was the last thing mentioned. This typical order of information from old to new is called the information flow. Every clause has at least one point of focus, the part of sentence which is the most prominent. Typically the focus falls on the last item in the clause - end-focus. If we wish to stress an element that naturally falls at the end of the clause, we can move it to the beginning. That way we put more emphasis on it. Clause elements differ in their size and complexity, or in other words they differ in weight. A complex noun phrase is heavier than a basic noun phrase. Supporting the principle of information flow, we tend to put the heavier elements at the end of the clause. Contrast occurs when the focused part is highlighted to show its difference from another element in the clause (e.g. It's not what you say, it's how you say it that I don't like.) The following sub-chapters introduce the syntactic devices that allow a change of word order in English. They help us build a coherent text and facilitate the process of understanding. There is one more device that allows us to change the word order that will not be mentioned here, because we talked about it in the previous chapter - the passive voice. Fronting is a technique that involves taking an element that typically follows the verb and placing it at the beginning of the sentence. We can front: 3.2 Fronting predicates objects non-finite clauses adverbials This I '11 never understand. Why he wanted to know this I have no idea. Ten years we've lived here. Enclosed you will find a letter of complaint. Far more serious were the head injuries. 30 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3.3 Subject-verb inversion Subject-verb inversion involves placing the verb before the subject. Inversion can take place: • after initial place and time adverbials (a combination of fronting and inversion) Here comes the first question. Not once did he look at me during his entire speech. • after direct speech "Don't say anything, " said Tom. • in conditional clauses Should you change your mind, please let us know. Had he known what to say, he would've answered. • after negative and restrictive opening elements (never, hardly, rarely, seldom, little, scarcely) Never have I heard such nonsense. Little did she know what was about to unfold. • to agree with positive statements (so + auxiliary verb + subject) I'm hungry. - So am I. We saw them last night. - So did we. • to agree with negative statements (neither/nor + auxiliary verb + subject) He hasn't heard about it yet. - Neither have I. Mary can't go there today. - Neither can we. 3.4 Existential there clauses Existential there construction is used to state the existence or occurrence of something. It is a commonplace phrase we use when we introduce new information presented in the noun phrase. The standard structure is the introductory there is/are construction followed by a noun phrase and then other elements (typically an adverbial). There's a painting on the wall next to the door. There were many visitors in the castle gardens. The existential there is a function word that is lexically empty. Its job is to move the key element towards the end of the sentence and thus give it more weight. The most typical verb used in the there construction is the verb be, but the verbs come, emerge, follow, or remain are also possible. Therefollowed an awkward silence. There remained only a ruin of the once opulent castle. Then there came a time when astronomy escapedfrom the confines of astrology. 31 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3.5 Dislocation Dislocation is a word-order changing technique that involves breaking up a clause-like structure into two separate units. A definite noun phrase is placed at one end of the clause and then repeated with an empty pronoun in the centre of the clause. It's a lovely little shop. —* This little shop it's lovely. Where is that box of chocolates ? —* That box of chocolates, where is it? I've weeded the garden. —> The garden, I've weeded it. 3.6 Clefting Clefting is a technique similar to dislocation, but for clefting the clause is broken into two simple clauses, each with its own verb. Cleft sentences help us focus on a certain part of a sentence to draw attention to the part of the sentence we want to emphasize. There are two types of clefting: it-cleft shifts the focus on the beginning of the clause, wh-cleft puts emphasis on the end of the clause. • it-cleft It's a real man I want. It was Luke who ate the last piece of pizza. That was my pencil you took. • wh-cleft What I want is a real man. All I wantfor Christmas is you. The one thing I want is some peace and quiet. COMPREHENSION CHECK Make sentences by putting the words in the most natural order. 1. talking / was / her / in / office / quietly / she / on the phone 2. new / the / system / at first / worked / computer / badly / very 3. job III have / yet / better / not / a / found 4. out / has / files / sorted / all / he / already / those 5. clearly / he / never / explain / very / do / can / to / things / how 6. the meetings / usually / now / them / is running / Tony / on time / don't start 7. morning / check / how many / we / have / every III to I have received / exactly / orders 8. date / out / model / already / years / is / of / this 9. component / sell / tried / cheap / he / us / Korean / to / a 10. often / have / at about / a cup / three o'clock / of tea / they / at the hotel / in the af- ternoon 11. California / the / are relocating / plant / production / they / to / whole / next year 12. always / at nine / out of the garage / in the morning / gets / his / o'clock / car / he 32 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ANSWERS Make sentences by putting the words in the most natural order. 1. She was in her office quietly talking on the phone. She was quietly talking on the phone in her office. 2. (At first) The new computer system worked badly at first. 3. I have not found a better job yet. 4. He has already sorted out all those files. 5. He can never explain very clearly how to do things. 6. The meeting usually don't start on time now Tony is running them. 7. (Every morning) I have to check (every morning) exactly how many orders we have received (every morning). 8. This model is already years out of date. 9. He tried to sell us a cheap Korean component. 10. We often have a cup of tea at the hotel at three o'clock in the afternoon. 11. (Next year) They are relocating the whole plant production to California next year. 12. He always gets his car out of the garage at nine o'clock in the morning. SUMMARY In the third chapter you learnt about the basic word order in English sentences. You have learnt that word order plays a different role in Czech than it does in English. You learnt the reasons why we might want to change the word order and then you discovered six syntactic devices we use to change the standard word order (fronting, S-V inversion, existential there clauses, dislocation, clefting). 33 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4 GRAMMAR OF THE CLAUSE QUICK OVERVIEW The fourth chapter looks at the grammar of the clause. It looks at the issue of subjectverb concord, that is the way subject and verb match each other in terms of number and person. The chapter further introduces different types of questions and imperatives, presents different structures of exclamative clauses, finite clauses, non-finite clauses, and verbless clauses. AIMS In this chapter you will E learn to match subject with the verb in a sentence learn to name different types of questions learn about different types of imperatives learn about the structure of exclamatives learn about finite and non-finite clauses learn about verbless questions KEYWORDS subject-verb concord, questions, imperatives, exclamatives, finite clauses, non-finite clauses, verbless clauses 4.1 Subject-verb concord |Pf| DEFINITIONS Concord is a "morphosyntactic phenomenon whereby two (or more) elements in a clause or sentence are harmonized in terms of the shape they take, e.g. with regard to person, number, or gender". (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 19). 34 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika Concord (or agreement) refers to the situation when the subject and verb of the sentence agree with each other in terms of number and person. The general rule is for the verb to match the subject. Concord is only apparent in finite verbs, which are marked for tense and for person. There is no visible concord in non-finite verbs, modal auxiliaries, and in imperative and subjunctive clauses. Although the rules of S-V concord are easy to state, they are not always easy to apply. Difficulties arise because singular and plural can be understood either in terms of form or in terms of meaning; we talk about grammatical and notional concord. Grammatical concord is the simple principle of a singular verb matching a singular subject, and a plural verb matching a plural subject (e.g. A girl was sitting at the water's edge. Two girls were sitting at the water's edge.) Notional concord, on the other hand, is governed by meaning rather than form, and so it is possible for a singular verb to go with a plural subject, e.g. when the subject is seen as one unit (Mushrooms cooked in cream and herbs is my favourite here.). UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS WITH PLURAL FORM -> SINGULAR Uncountable nouns that have plural form (e.g. diabetes, mumps, measles, linguistics, mathematics, athletics, bowls, billiards, news) mostly take singular verb. Nouns referring to academic disciplines (e.g. statistics, physics, economics) take a plural verb when used in general terms. No news is good news. Diabetes is an incurable disease. Statistics was always my worst subject at school. Statistics are able to prove anything you want them to. COLLECTIVE NOUNS -> PLURAL There is a group of collective nouns that have a singular form but take a plural verb. These are for example police, cattle, clergy, people, staff. The police are lookingfor the suspects. Most cattle arefattenedfor slaughter. COLLECTIVE NOUNS Other collective nouns (e.g. audience, class, committee, crowd, family, government, group, population, team, university) can take either singular or plural verb, depending on what the speakers wants to express. When they view the noun as one unit, they use a singular verb, when they see it more as a group of individuals, they can choose a plural verb (e.g. The government is/are discussing the proposal). 35 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika MEASUREMENTS, AMOUNTS, QUANTITIES -> SINGULAR Measurements, amounts and quantities are seen as one item and always take a singular verb (e.g. Thefifty pounds he gave her was soon spent. Ten miles is too far to walk). TITLES OF BOOKS, QUOTATIONS, COLLOCATIONS -> SINGULAR Titles of books, quotations, or collocations are seen as one item and as such they take a singular verb. Collections of stories can also take plural. The Grapes of Wrath is Steinbeck's most mature work. "Senior citizens " means people over sixty. The Canterbury Tales is/are Chaucer's masterpiece. SUBJECTS WITH TWO OR MORE ITEMS JOINED BY AND Phrases joined by and are typically followed by plural (e.g. Peter and Jane and moving back to London.), but can also take singular when we think of them as a single item (e.g. Fish and chips is a common take-away food.). SUBJECTS JOINED BY OR, NOR If the subjects are both singular, the verb is singular (e.g. Julia or Helen is responsible for baking the birthday cake.). When the subjects are plural, so is the verb (e.g. Roses or geraniums are going to be planted here.). If one subject is plural and the other singular, the verb is matched with the nearer noun (e.g. Does Joe or his friends want some pizza? Do the children or Joe wants some pizza?). A/THE MAJORITY -> PLURAL Both a majority and the majority take plural (e.g. The majority of students were studying in the computer lab.). A/THE NUMBER The number takes a singular verb, a number takes a plural verb (e.g. The number of failed students has decreased this year. A number of students are being failed this year.) THERE CONSTRUCTION In written English we follow the rules of grammatical concord, but in spoken and colloquial English where the verb is contracted, singular is more common. There's a similar tendency to use singular with here's, how's, and where's. Here's apples if you want one. Where's your shoes? 36 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika COMPREHENSION CHECK Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject. 1. Annie and her brothers is/are at school. 2. Either my mother or my father is/are coming to the meeting. 3. Diabetes is/are a medical condition in which someone has too much sugar in their blood. 4. The movie, including all the previews, takes/take about two hours to watch. 5. The Wings of the Dove is/are one of the novels written by Henry James. 6. Is/are the news on at five or six? 7. Mathematics is/are John's favourite subject. 8. Is/are the tweezers in this drawer? 9. Eight dollars is/are the price of a movie these days. 10. Bread and butter is/are our daily food. 11. The majority of the students was/were studying in the computer lab. 12. All of the pie is gone/are gone. 13. All of the cookies is gone/are gone. 14. "Homo sapiens' is/are often misspelled. 15. The number of employees has/have decreased this year. 16. A number of employees is/are being fired this year. 17. Two and two is/are four. 18. The staff in the hospital was/were very good. 19. Neither of the women has/have a reliable car. ANSWERS Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject. 1. Annie and her brothers is/are at school. 2. Either my mother or my father is/are coming to the meeting. 3. Diabetes is/are a medical condition in which someone has too much sugar in their blood. 4. The movie, including all the previews, takes/take about two hours to watch. 5. The Wings of the Dove is/are one of the novels written by Henry James. 6. Is/are the news on at five or six? 7. Mathematics is/are John's favourite subject. 8. Is/are the tweezers in this drawer? 9. Eight dollars is/are the price of a movie these days. 10. Bread and butter is/are our daily food. 11. The majority of the students was/were studying in the computer lab. 12. All of the pie is gone/are gone. 13. All of the cookies is gone/are gone. 14. "Homo sapiens' is/are often misspelled. 15. The number of employees has/have decreased this year. 37 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 16. A number of employees is/are being fired this year. 17. Two and two is/are four. 18. The staff in the hospital was/were very good. 19. Neither of the women has/have a reliable car. 4.2 Interrogative clauses Interrogative clauses are typically marked by inversion of the subject and verb. In writing, interrogatives end with a question mark, in speech the intonation is sometimes falling and sometimes rising, depending on the type of question. WH- QUESTIONS Wh- questions are the most common type of questions in English. Their job is to elicit missing information, although they can also serve other functions, such as a suggestion (Why don't we stay in for a change?) or an exclamation (Who do you think you are?). They are called wh- questions because they begin with a wh- word (who, what, where, when, why, which, how). They cannot be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no', a full answer needs to be provided to answer this type of question. The intonation is falling. Whoquestions can be subject questions (e.g. Who saw you!) or object questions (e.g. Who did you seel). YES-NO QUESTIONS We use yes-no questions to ask whether a proposition is true or false. These questions expect a 'yes' or 'no' answer. The intonation is rising. Just like who- questions, yes-no questions are used for other purposes than obtaining information, they can be meant as an exclamation (Isn't that lovely? Didn't I tell you not to go there?), a directive (Can we go nowl), or we can use them to back-channel (She's new in town. - Oh, is she?). QUESTIONS TAGS Question tags are very popular in English, especially as a means to initiate conversation and elicit agreement. If that is the case, the intonation is falling. When we use question tag as a real question that requires an answer, the intonation is rising. Question tags are short questions put at the end of the sentence. When the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative and vice versa. He's a doctor, isn't he? You work in a bank, don't you? You haven't met Peter yet, have you ? This isn't working, is it? 38 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Sometimes a positive-positive structure is used when the purpose of the question is to seek confirmation (She likes vanilla ice cream, does she?). We use auxiliary verbs in question tags. In sentences with let's the question tag is shall (e.g. Let's get out of here, shall we?). With imperatives, both positive and negative the question tag is usually will you? (but also can't you? or would you?). After / am the tag is aren't I?, with there is/are constructions, the there is repeated in the question tag (e.g. There's no more milk left, is there?). ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS Alternative questions offer a choice between two or more items contained in the question, which a linked by or (e.g. Do we turn left or right here? Would you like tea, coffee, or mineral water?). NEGATIVE YES-NO QUESTIONS In English negative questions are used to express surprise (e.g. Isn't she your sister? = I thought she were your sister), unlike in Czech were we use them to make our request more polite. E.g. the Czech Nevite, kolikje hodin? translated as Don't you know what the time is ? comes across as rather rude. Instead, English uses Could/Would you tell me the time? Do you happen to know the time? DECLARATIVE QUESTIONS Declarative questions have a S-V structure with a question mark and rising intonation. They are used to express surprise and to back-channel, that is to show the speaker we are listening and paying attention to what they are saying (e.g. And then he told me about his divorce. - He told you about it?). NON-FINITE QUESTIONS Non-finite questions have non-finite verbs in them (e.g. To be or not to be?). VERBLESS QUESTIONS Verbless questions do not include verbs at all (e.g. What about that book?). ELIDED QUESTIONS Elided questions have a part of the sentence omitted. This can be done because the rest of the question can be easily recovered from context (e.g. (Would you like) Anything else? What (do you want)? That (is) all?). 39 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika COMPREHENSION CHECK Translate the following questions. 1. Kdo mi chce pomoci? 2. Copak ty nevíš, kde bydlí? 3. K čemu j e to dobré? 4. Koho tady znáš? 5. Nemohl byste nám pomoct? 6. Na co se díváte? 7. Pro kolik jste jich poslal? 8. Co mu mám říct? 9. Komu jste to dali? 10. Kdo tu bydlí? ANSWERS Translate the following questions. 1. Who wants to help me? 2. Don't you know where he lives? 3. What is it good for? 4. Who do you know here? 5. Could/would you help us? 6. What are you looking at? 7. How many did you send for? 8. What am I to tell him? / What should I tell him? 9. Who did you give it to? 10. Who lives here? 4.3 Imperative clauses Imperative clauses can generally be identified by a plain form of the verb, omission of the 2nd person subject, and the used of auxiliary do in negation. Have fun tonight. Stop talking and open your books. Don't touch that! 40 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika However, there are other kinds of imperative clauses that do not match the aforementioned definition. • imperative with subject o used to emphasize You listen to me now! o use to distinguish You stay here and you come with me. • negative imperatives with subject pronoun Don't you worry about me. • imperative with let o 1st person imperative, which is not directed at other people only, but includes the speaker as well Let's go wild! Let's not go there. Don't lets go there. • imperative with modal verbs o include subject You must see it. You can't talk to him like that. • verbless imperative Not like that! Over here! Imperatives typically serve the purpose of giving orders, but they can have other functions too. • invitation Take another cookie. Do sit down. • advice Keep all your belonging with you at all times. • permission Take whatever you want. Use as much paper as you need. • wish Have a great holiday. Enjoy the party. COMPREHENSION CHECK Translate the sentences into English. 1. Poj ďme mu nic neřict. 2. Nemluvte ujídla. 3. To nesmíte! 4. Tudy ne. 5. Podrž mi to. ANSWERS Translate the sentences into English. 1. Let's not tell him anything. / Don't let's tell him anything. 2. Don't speak while eating. 3. You can't do that! 41 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4. Notthisway! 5. Hold it for me. 4.4 Exclamative clauses Exclamative clauses usually have one of the following structures: • What + noun phrase + subject + verb + (other elements) What a great idea that is! What a fool I've been! • How + adjective / adverb + subject + verb + (other elements) How quickly she made herself comfortable here. How cute the baby is! Other sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative) can fulfil the same function as exclamatives, that is to express strong emotion, but they are not exclamative sentence types (e.g. That hurts! Who the hell are you? Don't be so stupid!). 4.5 Finite vs non-finite clauses Finite clauses contain a verb inflected for tense and for person. They typically have a subject (except most imperatives) and can be independent (main) as well as dependent (subordinate) clauses. He's been living on his own ever since his wife died. We couldjust stay in and order pizza for dinner. They haven't been in touch with us in ages. Non-finite clauses contain a lexical verb that does not indicate tense or person. Nonfinite clauses are typically subordinate and they combine with finite clauses in complex or complex-compound sentences. Reference to time, person, and number are easily deduced from context or information in the finite clause. There are four types of non-finite clauses: • to-infinitive clauses He gave up his job to travel the world. I'd always wanted to visit Australia. • bare infinitive clauses All I did was tell him the truth. She made me tidy up the room. • -ing participle clauses Not having anyone to talk to, he left the party early. Feeling sick, she sat down in the shade. • -ed participle clauses Taken three times a day, these pills should help. Tiredfrom working all day, she wentfor a walk. 42 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika COMPREHENSION CHECK Underline the non-finite clauses in the sentences. 1. After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home. 2. There was still one last task for him to achieve. 3. He went to college worried about his future. 4. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die. 5. Harry was proud to have served in the army. ANSWERS Underline the non-finite clauses in the sentences. 1. After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home. 2. There was still one last task for him to achieve. 3. He went to college worried about his future. 4. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die. 5. Harry was proud to have served in the army. 4.6 Verbless clauses Verbless clauses are elliptical structures without verbs and often even subjects. They are considered clauses because they are as functional as finite or non-finite clauses. The verb has been omitted, but it can be easily recovered by expanding the sentence to its full form. When (you are) in trouble, don't hesitate to askfor help. Though (he were) old, he managed by himself. SUMMARY In the fourth chapter you learnt about the grammar of the clause. You practised subject-verb concord, learnt about different types of interrogative clauses and imperative clauses. You can distinguish exclamative clauses from other types of clauses that fulfil the same function. You can recognise and identify finite clauses, non-finite clauses, and verbless clauses. 43 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5 COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION QUICK OVERVIEW The fifth chapter briefly introduces the topic of coordination and subordination, and then it presents the types of relative clauses both from the point of view of place in the sentence, as well as type. The second part of the chapter introduces thirteen types of adverbial clauses. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn about coordination and subordination • learn about different types of relative clauses • learn to recognise and name different types of adverbial clauses KEYWORDS coordination, subordination, relative clauses, adverbial clauses 5.1 Coordination and subordination Clause can be joined together to form sentences. There are two levels or relationship between clauses in the sentences. Coordination means joining two related ideas of equal importance into one sentence. Two coordinate clauses can be joined by a simple comma, or by one of the coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Cycling class is a tough workout, but I still go three times a week. Betty loves animals, so she volunteers in the local shelter. Yesterday I bought eggs and milk, and today I'm baking a cake. Two subordinate clauses can be joined by one of the subordinating conjunctions. 44 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Subordination means joining two (or more) sentences together where one idea is less important than the other. Subordinate sentences have one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. The main (independent) clauses can stand on their own without being joined to another clause. The subordinate (dependent) clauses have to be joined to the main clause, they depend on it and cannot stand on their own. Typical conjunctions joining the subordinate clauses to the main clauses are when, after, once, since, unless, before, because, where, as soon as, while, even if, although, etc. There are two main types of subordinate clauses - relative clauses and adverbial claus- es. 5.2 Relative clauses Relative clauses are subordinate clauses that provide more information about the main clause. Depending on how vital the information in the subordinate clause is for the meaning of the main clause, we identify defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses. 5.2.1 DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Defining relative clauses define the subject or the object in the main clause. The information in the subordinate clause is necessary for a complete identification of the information in the main clause. / like that painting that hangs in the living room above the sofa. Students who study hard will do well in my class. Are you reading the the book which I lent you last week? The woman who(m) you called is my friend. We use the relative pronouns who and that to refer to people, which or that to refer to things, and where or preposition + which to refer to places. When the relative clause defines the object of the sentence, no relative pronoun is necessary. Table 10: Relative pronouns used in defining clauses Person Thing Place Subject who / that which / that where / prep+which Object who(m) / that/0 which / that / 9 where / prep+which / 0 This is the film which / that/01 told you about. Let me tell you about the problem which/ that / 0 we 're dealing with here. This is the house where / in which I grew up. This is the house 91 grew up in. There are no commas separating the main clause from the subordinate clause in defining relative clauses. 45 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5.2.2 NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information which is not necessary for the sentence to convey a complete thought. Subordinate non-defining clauses do not define the main clauses in the relative sentences. The relative pronouns used are who(m) for people and which for things. We do not use the relative pronoun that in non-defining clauses, and we cannot omit the relative pronoun either. Commas are used to separate the main clause from the subordinate clause. Table 11: Relative pronouns used in non-defining clauses Person Thing Subject who which Object who(m) which Non-defining relative clauses can be either embedded, that is inserted in the middle of the main clause, in which case they refer only to the noun phrase in the sentence, or they can refer to the whole sentence, in which case they are placed at the end of the sentence. We '11 ask Joseph, who is the oldest in the family, to say a few words. The Tower of London, which used to be a prison, is a museum now. He agreed to spend the night, which surprised us all. 5.3 Adverbial clauses Adverbial clauses act as modifiers of the main clause. They specify circumstances such as time, place, cause and reason, result, purpose, preference, or condition. 5.3.1 CLAUSES OF TIME Adverbial clauses of time say when something happens by referring to a period of time. Typical conjunctions are when, after, as soon as, before, once, since, until, till, or while. The question we ask is when ? There is no will in the subordinate clause, only the main clause, with the exception of indirect speech and indirect questions. /11 call you as soon as I have more information. I always take bath before I go to bed. Will you wat here until I'm ready? 5.3.2 CLAUSES OF PLACE Adverbial clauses of place tell us the location or position of someone or something. Typical conjunctions are where, whenever, wherever, but also when, once, until. We ask where? 46 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Everybody knew where I grew up. Wherever he went, DaVinci always brought Mona Lisa with him. Turn left when you reach the old millhouse. 5.3.3 CLAUSES OF CAUSE AND REASON Adverbial clauses of cause and reason indicate the reason for an activity or event. Typical conjunctions are because, since, as, for, given. We ask the question why? to identify this kind of adverbial clauses. The picture came out badly because the light was poor. Since I can spare only a few minutes, please be brief with your presentation. As he was not at home, I left a message with his mother. 5.3.4 CLAUSE OF PURPOSE Adverbial clauses of purpose indicate the purpose of an action. We ask the same question as when identifying the clauses of cause and reason, that is why? and also for what purpose?, but the conjunctions are different - we use to, in order to, so that, so as to. I took my shoes off so as not to diry the carpet. John popped out in the morning to get milk and the papers. Charlie was whispering so as not to disturb the other passengers. 5.3.5 RESULT CLAUSES Adverbial clauses of result indicate the result of an action or situation. Result clauses are introduced by the conjunctions so or so that. The lecture was boring, so some of the students started to fall asleep. Roy's up in Manchester tomorro, so he won't be joining us for dinner. He bought a car so that he was more independent. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the adverbial clauses (time, place, cause & reason, purpose, result). 1. I'm studying hard because I want to pass my exam. 2. When she called, he had already eaten lunch. 3. She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. 4. The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake. 5. They had to leave early since their train left at 8.30. 6. She began cooking while I was finishing my homework. 7. He opened the window so as to let some fresh air in. 8. I've forgotten my password, so I can't read my email. 47 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 9. Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software. 10. Once ashore, the boat was thoroughly inspected. 11. She supported him so that he wouldn't fall. 12. She was so lovely that everyone in class was in love with her. ANSWERS Identify the adverbial clauses (time, place, cause & reason, purpose, result). 1. I'm studying hard because I want to pass my exam. cause & reason 2. When she called, he had already eaten lunch. time 3. She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. purpose 4. The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake. place 5. They had to leave early since their train left at 8.30. cause & reason 6. She began cooking while I was finishing my homework. time 7. He opened the window so as to let some fresh air in. purpose 8. I've forgotten my password, so I can't read my email. result 9. Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software. place 10. Once ashore, the boat was thoroughly inspected. time 11. She supported him so that he wouldn't fall. purpose 12. She was so lovely that everyone in class was in love with her. result 5.3.6 CLAUSES OF CONTRAST Adverbial clauses of contrast link two ideas that contrast with each other. These clauses put into contrast similar aspects of two different people, things, or situations. Typical conjunctions introducing clauses of contrast are whereas, while, whilst, though, or although. Mary prefers tea while Peter likes coffee more. The south of England is ratherflat, whilst the north is hilly. Even though this is a university city, you can see many elderly people here. 5.3.7 CONCESSIVE CLAUSES Concessive clauses also link two contrasting ideas together and they employ the same conjunctions as. Concessive clauses differ from clauses of contrast in the way they contrast two different aspects of the same person, thing or situation. Although she understands English, she can't speak it. Sarah is a company director in spite of being only 26. 48 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Despite knowing how to cook, she said she didn't. 5.3.8 CLAUSES OF SIMILARITY AND COMPARISON Clauses of similarity and comparison state comparison of a skill, size, amount, etc. Typical conjunctions are as ... as, than, as, as if. He looked as if he 'd seen a ghost. Johan can speak asfluently as his teacher. 5.3.9 CLAUSES OF PROPORTION Adverbial clauses of proportion involve some kind of comparison or a changing ratio. They may be introduced by the conjunction as ...(so), or the construction the ... the. As he got older, (so) his health deteriorated. The harder he worked, the easier it all seemed. You get more tolerant of other people as you get older. 5.3.10 CLAUSES OF PREFERENCE Clauses of preference indicate which option the speaker prefers. Typical conjunctions introducing this type of adverbial clauses are rather than or sooner than. We want to buy it directly rather than through an agent. They '11fight to finish sooner than surrender. 5.3.11 CLAUSES OF EXCEPTION Adverbial clauses of exception usually state an exception that prevented a certain situation from happening or a statement to be true or complete. Typical conjunctions are except that, only, but that, save that. She didn't do anything, except water the plants. I would've called you, only I didn't have your number. 5.3.12 COMMENT CLAUSES Comment clauses represent a separate tone unit. They can stand at the end of a clause or be placed in the initial position. They communicate the speaker's personal take on things. They are always separated from the main clause by a comma. / don't know what to think about this, to be honest. As you know, I won't be here next week. Speaking as a layman, I don't think plastic straws are badfor the environment. 49 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5.3.13 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES Conditional clauses express either real or unreal condition in the future, present or the past. REAL (OPEN) CONDITIONS • in the future (1st conditional) If you don't sit properly, you '11 get backache. at present (0 conditional) If you 're getting backache, you 're not sitting properly. • in the past (mixed conditional) If you got backache, you must've been slouching. UNREAL (HYPOTHETICAL) CONDITIONS • at present (2nd conditional) /'d go with you if I didn't have to work. If I were you, I'd help him. • in the past (3rd conditional) Tessa would've been furious if she'd heard him say that. The most frequently used conjunctions in conditional clauses are the conjunctions if and unless. However, other conjunctions are also possible, such as provided that, providing that, as long as, so long as, on condition that, supposing, assuming, but for, in case of, or lest. As long as it doesn't rain, we '11 have a great time. I '11 take an umbrella with me in case it rains. Assuming we don't sell the house, we can still move. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the adverbial clauses (concessive, contrast, similarity and comparison, proportion, exception, comment, and condition). 1. He bought me a lovely gift, although he can't really afford it. 2. Provided he feels fine, he can go back to work. 3. I think of him all the time while he doesn't even know me. 4. He ran as if ghosts were chasing him. 5. As prices rose, the demand for higher salaries became more intense. 6. I'm happy she's moved out, to be perfectly honest. 7. Though he is not perfect, she is crazy about him. 8. They didn't speak to us except for answering our questions. 9. Even though he worked hard, he failed the final exam. 10. Well, speaking as a journalist, I'm dismayed by the violence in the media. 11. While I don't agree with her, I can understand her viewpoint. 50 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 12. It seems as if the day would never end. 13. The more she thought about it, the less she liked it. 14. Unless somebody comes up with something, we're screwed. ANSWERS Identify the adverbial clauses (concessive, contrast, similarity and comparison, proportion, exception, comment, and condition). 1. He bought me a lovely gift, although he can't really afford it. concessive 2. Provided he feels fine, he can go back to work. condition 3. I think of him all the time while he doesn't even know me. contrast 4. He ran as if ghosts were chasing him. similarity 5. As prices rose, the demand for higher salaries became more intense, proportion 6. I'm happy she's moved out, to be perfectly honest. comment 7. Though he is not perfect, she is crazy about him. contrast 8. They didn't speak to us except for answering our questions. exception 9. Even though he worked hard, he failed the final exam. concessive 10. Well, speaking as a journalist, I'm dismayed by the violence in the media. comment 11. While I don't agree with her, I can understand her viewpoint. concessive 12. It seems as if the day would never end. similarity 13. The more she thought about it, the less she liked it. proportion 14. Unless somebody comes up with something, we're screwed. condition SUMMARY In the fifth chapter you learnt about coordination and subordination. You can now differentiate between clauses of the same quality and those dependent on the main clause. You have learnt to recognise the different types of relative clauses as well as all adverbial clauses. You know the difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses and you know which questions to ask to identify the adverbial clauses. 51 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 6 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION QUICK OVERVIEW The last chapter introduces the rules of punctuation and capitalization in English. It lists the most common punctuation marks and shows where and how they are used, then it summarizes the rules of capitalization in English. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn to name and use punctuation marks • learn which words are capitalized in English KEYWORDS punctuation, capitalization 6.1 Punctuation In speaking, we use pauses and the pitch of the voice to communicate an end of a sentence, a question, etc. In writing, this role is played by punctuation marks. . FULL STOP / PERIOD We use full stop at the end of declarative sentences, imperative sentences, reported questions, some abbreviations (a.m., Washington, D.C.), in websites, email addresses, and in decimal numbers. When used at the end of sentences, there is no space between the last letter and the full stop, but there is a space before the first letter of the next sentence. If an abbreviation with a full stop falls at the end of a sentence, we do not use another full stop (e.g. Bring your pens pencils, rulers, etc. I'll pick you up at 8 a.m.). ? QUESTION MARK / INTERROGATION POINT Question mark is used at the end of direct and indirect questions, tag questions, and rhetorical questions (e.g. What are you doing? Do you know where he's going? He's a bit 52 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika bonkers, isn 't he?). There are no questions marks in reported questions (e.g. He wanted to know where we were going. He asked me if I knew his address.) ! EXCLAMATION MARK / EXCLAMATION POINT We use exclamation mark at the end of an emphatic declaration, interjection (e.g. Ha! Whoops!), or in imperatives. Exclamations marks can also be put in brackets and inserted in a sentence to emphasise not a whole sentence, but a specific word (e.g. And he asked me for two (!) thousand.). In academic register or formal register, exclamation mark is virtually nonexistent. , COMMA Commas are used for many things. The following table lists the most common functions with examples. Table 12: The uses of comma Rule Example We use comma to separate three or more items in a series. Comma before and is optional. We call it serial comma or Oxford comma. He hit the ball, dropped the bat(,) and ran to first base. We can (but do not have to) use commas in compound clauses before the coordinators. I was tired(,) but I kept working. We use commas to set off subordinate clauses. There is no need to use a comma before the subordinating conjuction. When I get home, I'll call you. I'll callyou when I get home. We use comma to set off introductory ele­ ments. Fortunately, she was able to help us. On the one hand, I think the price is fair. Commas set off parenthetical elements. I'm telling you, Jane, I couldn 't be more surprised. We use commas to separate coordinate adjectives. We live an a very old, run-down house. We use commas to set off quoted elements from the rest of the sentence. "The question is, " said Alice, "whether you can make words mean so many things." Commas can be used to set off phrases that express contrast. It was her money, not her charm, that attracted him. Commas help us avoid confusion. Ouside, the lawn was cluttered with hundreds of broken branches. We use commas to separate names and titles. David Crystal, Professor of English Commas can be used in numbers to separate thousands. 1,500,000 Commas can be used in dates to separate days from years. July 4, 1776 (but 4 July 1776) 53 Markéta Johňová - Anglická gramatika ; SEMICOLON Semicolon helps us separate closely related independent clauses. It marks a break that is stronger than a comma, but not as final as a full stop (e.g. My grandma seldom goes to bed this early; she's afraid she '11 miss out on something.). Semicolons are also used to sort out complicated lists, they represent a stronger division in sentences that already contain commas (e.g. There were participants from Bangor, Maine; Hartford, Connecticut; and Boston, Massachusetts.). : COLON Colon can be used to introduce a quotation (e.g. The police report stated: "We found the suspect's fingerprints at the scene of the crime. "), or we use it to name items on a list or provided an explanation (e.g. The committee now includes the following people: the mayor, the chief ofpolice, and the chair of the town council. There's only one thing left to do: confess while there's still time.). ' APOSTROPHE We use apostrophe to show possession (e.g. Jacob's sister) and in contracted verb forms (e.g. isn't, don't, haven 'f). - HYPHEN We use hyphens to form compound words (e.g. well-known, out-of-date, brother-inlaw), compound numbers (e.g. twenty-three), and for some prefixes (e.g. ex-husband, selfcontrol, anti-American). - DASH Dash is used as a super-comma to set off parenthetical elements (e.g. All three of them - Tom, Susan, and Pete - did well in college.) or we use it to show breaks in thoughts or shifts in tone (e.g. "1askedyou not to , " Victor suddenly stopped speaking.) " " QUOTATION MARKS / INVERTED COMMAS We use quotation marks before and after direct speech (e.g. "I'll never talk to you again, " he shouted.) or to set off words in a sentence (we can use italics or single quotations marks for the same purpose). () ROUND BRACKETS We use round brackets to include extra information we want to de-emphasize in the sentence or that would not fit into the flow of the text. While brackets tend to deemphasize test, dashes make the set-off text more prominent. 54 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika [] SQUARE BRACKETS Square brackets are used to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language (e.g. "... and [we] decided to include this information. "). ... ELLIPSIS We use ellipsis to replace words that have been left out or to indicate an unfinished sentence that trails off into silence (e.g. But I thought you were ...). We leave a space before the ellipsis. @ AT SIGN At sign (or at symbol) is used in email addresses. It separates the name of the user from the user's mail server address. In everyday writing it can also stand for the word at. The origin of the at sign is unknown, but one of the theories says that it developed as a shorthand for the Latin word ad used before the invention of printing press by Medieval monks to save paper and a stroke of pen when transcribing manuscripts. 6.2 Capitalization The following table lists the rules of capitalization in English. Table 13: Capitalization rules Rule Example Capitalize the fist word in a sentence. That day everything changedfor her. Capitalize the first word of a quote when the quote is a complete sentence, but not when it is a partial quote. Lucy asked, "When did she call you? " She said she was "way too busy " tojoin us. Capitalize names and surnames of peo- ple. Maggie, Mary Jane, Robert Procter Capitalize the pronoun /. He asked what I wanted to do next. Capitalize titles used with names. Dr Johnson, Ms Cooper, General Black, President Obama, William the Conqueror Capitalize cities, countries, and geograpic names. Brighton, Israel, Stonehenge, the Sahara, Rocky Mountains, Lake Michigan, Europe, North America, Jupiter Capitalize street and square names. Regent Street, Oxford Circus, Atlantic Bou- levard Capitalize names of buildings, monuments, bridges, and towers. Eifell Tower, the Statue of Liberty, the Golden Gate Bridge Capitalize the names of holidays. Christmas, Easter, Halloween Capitalize the days of the week and Monday, September, spring 55 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika months of the year, but not seasons. Capitalize names of races, nationalities, and tribes. British, French, Swiss, Czech, Navajo, Es- kimo Capitalize adjectives relating to nationa- lities. French fries, Arabic writing, Brazilian coffee, Colgate toothpaste Capitalize names of languages. English, Spanish, Chinese Capitalize all the words in the title of an art piece, book, film, song, magazine, play, newspaper, or a TV show (except articles, conjuctions, and prepositions when not in initial position). hat Supper, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, Pride and Prejudice, What a Wonderful World, Good Will Hunting, National Geographic, The Telegraph, Daily Mail, How I Met Your Mother, Game of Thrones Capitalize organisation, associations, and institutions. Oxford University, The British Museum, European Union, Royal Albert Hall, Red Cross, Alcoholics Anonymous Capitalize government titles, goverments and government terms. the Queen of England, the Secretary of Defense, British Parliament, House of Lords, the President's Cabinet, the Ministry of Internal Affairs Capitalize brand names and names of companies. Range Rover, Microsoft Corporation, Braun, Hoover, Samsung, Marks & Spencer, Star- bucks Capitalize historical events, documents, and eras. Battle of Hastings, World War II, Declaration of Independence, Victorian Era, Stone Age Capitalize names of gods, religious figures, and holy books. Buddha, Zeus, Moses, the Virgin Mary, the Bible, Holy Bible Capitalize salutations and closings in letters. Dear student, Yours truly, Love, Best regards Capitalize initials, initalisms, and acro- nyms. Angus R. Brown, House, M.D., FBI, USA, UNESCO, JPEG, LOL COMPREHENSION CHECK Use appropriate punctuation marks and capitalization in the following sentences. 1. We had a great time in france the kids really enjoyed it 2. Some people work best in the mornings others do better in the evenings 3. What are you doing next weekend 4. Mother had to go into hospital she had heart problems 5. Did you understand why I was upset 6. It is a fine idea let us hope that it is going to work 56 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 7. We will be arriving on monday morning at least I think so 8. A textbook can be a wall between teacher and class 9. The girls father sat in a corner 10. In the words of murphys law Anything that can go wrong will go wrong ANSWERS Use appropriate punctuation marks and capitalization in the following sentences. 1. We had a great time in France , / - the kids really enjoyed it. 2. Some people work best in the mornings , / ; others do better in the evenings. 3. What are you doing next weekend? 4. Mother had to go into hospital: she had heart problems. 5. Did you understand why I was upset? 6. It is a fine idea , / ; let us hope that it is going to work. 7. We will be arriving on Monday morning - at least, I think so. 8. A textbook can be a "wall" between teacher and class. 9. The girl's father sat in a corner. 10. In the words of Murphy's Law : / , "Anything that can go wrong will go wrong." SUMMARY In the last chapter you learnt the rules of punctuation and capitalization in English. You can name and use all the common punctuation marks, and you know the rules of capitalization as well. 57 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika LITERATURA Aarts, B. (2011). Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford: OUP. Aarts, B., Chalker, S., and Weiner, E. (2014). The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP. Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Leech, G. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Carter, R., and McCarthy, M . (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Dušková, L. (2012). Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Academia. Svoboda, A., Kučera, K. (2003). English Parts of Speech. Opava: SLU. 58 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY Cílem této opory bylo zprostředkovat studentovi hlubší přehled o formě a použití slovesa a slovesné fráze, a dále o gramatice základních typů hlavních i vedlejších vět. Náplní kurzu byl kromě detailního rozboru slovesa coby klíčového prvku v anglické větě také výčet a podrobný popis variací slovesné fráze (čas, aspekt, rod, způsob, modalita a zápor). V druhé části textu se čtenář seznámil s principy slovosledu ve větách, dozvěděl se o specificích shody podmetu s přísudkem, typech otázek, vět rozkazovacích a vět zvolacích. Závěrečné kapitoly představily typy vedlejších vět a specifika používání interpunkčních znamének a dále používání velkých písmen v angličtině. Cílem textu bylo prohloubit a dále rozvinout znalosti získané v úvodním kurzu Úvod do gramatiky a v návazném kurzu Gramatika 1 tak, aby měl absolvent všech tří kurzů spolehlivý teoretický přehled do anglické gramatice a zároveň uměl nabyté vědomosti aplikovat v praxi. 59 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON Čas potřebný ke studiu Klíčová slova Průvodce studiem <£> I Rychlý náhled Tutoriály K zapamatování Řešená úloha Kontrolní otázka | Odpovědi Samostatný úkol Pro zájemce El m Cíle kapitoly Nezapomeňte na odpočinek 1 Průvodce textem V I Shrnutí Definice Případová studie Věta Korespondenční úkol Otázky Další zdroje Úkol k zamyšlení 60 Název: Anglická gramatika Autor: Mgr. Markéta Johnová, Ph.D. Vydavatel: Slezská univerzita v Opavě Filozoficko-přirodovědecká fakulta v Opavě Určeno: studentům SU FPF Opava Počet stran: 61 Tato publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.