EVROPSKÁ UNIE Evropské strukturální a investiční fondy Operační program Výzkum, vývoj a vzdělávání M I N I S T E R S T V O Š K O L S T V Í , M L A D E 2 E A T Ě L O V Ý C H O V Y Název projektu Rozvoj vzdělávání na Slezské univerzitě v Opavě Registrační číslo projektu CZ.02.2.69/0.0./0.0/16_015/0002400 Anglická gramatika Distanční studijní text Markéta Johnová Opava 2019 S L E Z S K A U N I V E R Z I T A F 1 L O Z O F I C K O P Ř Í R O D O V Č D E C K Á F A K U L T A V O F A V Ě Obor: 0231 Osvojování si jazyka Klíčová slova: grammar, morphology, syntax, content words, function words, phrase, clause, sentence Anotace: Kurz Úvod do gramatiky je první v sérii kurzů (následovat budou Gramatika 1 a Gramatika 2), jejichž cílem je obeznámit studenty s pravidly a principy anglické gramatiky. V úvodním kurzu se studenti dozví, jak je strukturován jazyk a co zahrnuje pojem gramatika, a dále jak se liší preskriptivní a deskriptívni přístup ke gramatice. Studenti se naučí rozlišovat jednotlivé slovní druhy a fráze, větné členy a typy vět. Autor: Mgr. Markéta Johnová, Ph.D. Toto dílo podléhá licenci: http://creativecommons.Org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Obsah ÚVODEM 5 RYCHLÝ NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY 6 1 INTRODUCTION TO G R A M M A R 7 1.1 Structure of language 7 1.2 Prescriptive vs descriptive grammar 9 1.3 Standard vs non-standard English 9 1.4 Morphology vs syntax 10 1.5 Types of words 13 1.6 Families of words 13 1.6.1 Content words 14 1.6.2 Function words 14 1.7 Structures of words 15 1.7.1 Inflection 15 1.7.2 Derivation 16 1.7.3 Compounding 17 2 CONTENT WORDS 20 2.1 Content words 20 2.1.1 Nouns 21 2.1.2 Lexical verbs 23 2.1.3 Adjectives 25 2.1.4 Adverbs 25 3 FUNCTION WORDS 27 3.1 Function words 27 3.1.1 Determiners 27 3.1.2 Pronouns 28 3.1.3 Auxiliary verbs 29 3.1.4 Prepositions 30 3.1.5 Conjunctions 31 3.1.6 Interjections 31 4 PHRASE 34 4.1 Phrases 34 3 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4.2 Types of phrases 36 4.2.1 Noun phrase (NP) 36 4.2.2 Verb phrase (VP) 40 4.2.3 Adjective phrase (AdjP) 40 4.2.4 Adverb phrase (AdvP) 41 4.2.5 Prepositional phrase (PP) 41 5 CLAUSE AND SENTENCE 43 5.1 Clause and sentence 43 5.2 Types of clauses 44 5.2.1 Classification by number and type of finite clauses 45 5.2.2 Classification by purpose 47 6 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS 50 6.1 Clause elements 50 6.1.1 Subject 51 6.1.2 Verb 52 6.1.3 Object 52 6.1.4 Complement 54 6.1.5 Adverbial 55 LITERATURA 58 SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY 59 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON 60 4 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ÚVODEM Studijní opora je určena studentům bakalářského studijního programu Angličtina pro odbornou praxi jako podpůrný studijní materiál ke kurzu Úvod do gramatiky. Sudijní opora obsahuje: • teoretický základ probíraného tématu s konkrétními příklady, • kontrolní cvičení, • klíč ke cvičením, • seznam citované a parafrázované literatury. Student nastuduje dané téma a vypracuje úkoly, pomocí kterých si ověří pochopení vysvětleného gramatického jevu. Po kontrolních cvičeních následuje klíč se správným řešením, díky kterému má student možnost sám vyhodnotit, zda probírané látce dostatečně porozuměl. 5 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika RYCHLÝ NÁHLED STUDIJNÍ OPORY Kurz je koncipován tak, aby měl po jeho absolvování student spolehlivý přehled o základních pravidlech a principech anglické gramatiky. Student se v opoře dozví, jak je strukturován jazyk, co zahrnuje pojem gramatika, jak se liší preskriptivní a deskriptívni přístup ke gramatice, a co znamenají termíny morfology a syntax. Student se v opoře také dozví, jaký je rozdíl mezi content a function words, naučí rozlišovat jednotlivé slovní druhy a fráze, i anglické větné členy. Naučí se dále rozpoznávat věty podle počtu a typu vět a také podle jejich účelu. Cílem tohoto úvodního kurzu do anglické gramatiky je poskytnout základ k hlubšímu studiu jednotlivých slovních druhů, frází a vět. 6 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 1 INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR QUICK OVERVIEW The first chapter introduces the principles of English grammar. It explains the difference between standard and non-standard English, and the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. The chapter further introduces the structure of language, explains the difference between morphology and syntax, and presents types and families of words together with an overview of structures of words. AIMS In this chapter you will • find out what grammar is • learn the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar • find out the difference between standard and non-standard English • learn to distinguish morphology and syntax • learn to recognise types of words • learn to recognise families of words • learn to identify structures of words KEYWORDS prescriptive grammar, descriptive grammar, morphology, syntax, types of words, families of words, structures of words 1.1 Structure of language One way of looking at language is considering individual building blocks of language the way we think of a building material when we are constructing a house. We start with the smallest units (bricks) and start by building the foundations of the house, then we proceed to raise the walls where we install windows and doors, and finally we cap it off with a roof. 7 introduction to grammar In terms of language, the smallest units (bricks of language) are morphemes which we use to form words. The part of linguistics that studies words is called morphology. Words are then grouped into phrases which form clauses that can be joined to create sentences (those are the walls of our house). The part of linguistics that studies phrases, clauses and sentences is called syntax. The rules that govern the way words are put together to form phrase, clauses, and then sentences is generally called grammar. When we move beyond the sentence level and start forming paragraphs and then whole texts (the roof of our house), we talk about text linguistics, which is then complemented by the study of meaning {semantics) and the study of meaning in context {pragmatics). The following table shows the structure of language starting at word level and moving up to whole texts. It demonstrates how individual parts of linguistics are concerned with language on different levels and from different perspectives. Morphology is concerned with structure of words, syntax deals with arrangement of phrases into clauses and sentences (the word syntax comes from a Greek word meaning order or arrangement), and in text analysis linguists analyse the relationship between sentences as they are linked together to form text. Table 1: Structure of language text text analysis (relationships between items)paragraph text analysis (relationships between items) sentence syntax (arrangement of items) grammar clause syntax (arrangement of items) grammarphrase syntax (arrangement of items) grammar word morphology (structure of items) grammar morpheme morphology (structure of items) grammar The following example shows a sample analysis of a sentence. The sentence Jack played in the garden while his mum was working, shows a grammatical analysis starting with the syntactic analysis on sentence level, moving to the clause level, then phrase level, then it moves to morphology as it shows the difference between words and morphemes. The sentence consists of two clauses, six phrases, ten words, and twelve mor- phemes. sentence Jack played in the garden while his mum was working. 1 clause [Jack played in the garden] [while his mum was working] 2 phrase [Jack] [played] [in the garden] [while] [his mum] [was working] 6 word [Jack] [played] [in] [the] [garden] [while] [his] [mum] [was] [working] 10 morpheme Jack play+ed in the garden while his mum was work+ing 12 8 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 1.2 Prescriptive vs descriptive grammar Grammar can be viewed and understood from two different perspectives. Those who think of grammar as a set of rules the speakers of a language should follow in order to speak correctly or properly subscribe to the prescriptive approach to grammar. This approach is typically used in language classes where students are taught to use certain structures and avoid others. It is a useful tool that can help us learn a language more quickly and efficiently, especially when we view the grammatical rules as guidelines rather than a dogma. Modern linguistics aims to provide descriptive grammar, that is describing language as it actually is used without saying how it is supposed to be used. Linguists make use of language corpora (electronically stored, searchable collections of texts), which allow them to accurately track and quantify the language people use in different types of both spoken and written texts. The descriptive approach does not consider what is correct or proper. Linguists simply observe how people speak and then try to describe the mental processes that lead to the resulting language form. Descriptive grammar also views language change as a natural process that is not to be feared or criticised. For example, in prescriptive grammar we are told to never end a sentence with a preposition or begin a sentence with a conjunction such as and or but. Descriptive grammar notes that people, in fact, often end their sentences with a preposition and begin their sentences with a conjunction. What follows from this is that in prescriptive grammar people follow the rules, whilst in descriptive grammar rules follow people. 1.3 Standard vs non-standard English Standard English is a variety of English that is perceived as official and is used by governments and the media, taught in schools, and used for international communication. It concerns all areas of language: that is grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Standard English is typically associated with prestige, wealth, good education and a higher social class. Every English-speaking country has its own variety of Standard English. In the U K Standard English started as a regional dialect that developed in the southeast of England. Standard American English (also called General American) generated in North Midland and Western New England. Standard English is useful as a global lingua franca. Non-standard dialects have a distinct grammar, lexis and pronunciation and they vary greatly throughout regions. Those speaking non-standard English are often from lower classes, are more likely to have left education earlier, and have non-professional jobs. Non-standard language has historically been stigmatised and often perceived as "incorrect". Today dialects have been gradually losing their negative connotation and people 9 introduction to grammar often use non-standard language as a matter of pride to demonstrate they belong to a certain social group or come from a certain area. An example of non-standard English is the usage of double negative. / ain't never done nothin' like that. I don't got no time. There aren't no people coming over. The following example sentences demonstrate a non-standard usage of pronouns. Me mum and me dad are very proud. That's yourn. Haveyous gentlemen finished talking? The past decades have seen a reduction of differences between local accents and dialects as a result of social mobility. New linguistic features are introduced by speakers from different areas and integrated in the local dialect. Two examples of this merging effect are Estuary English, which is a compromise between Received Pronunciation and Cockney, and Multicultural London English, which is a blend of Cockney with Indian, African, Asian, and Jamaican languages, and is considered by many the new sound of London. 1.4 Morphology vs syntax The study of language generally concerns the internal structure of words and the way words are arranged into phrases, clauses and sentences. The branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words is called morphology. The smallest unit that carries meaning is called a morpheme. Morphemes form words, which are seen as the basic element of language. Some words consist of one morpheme only, others have more morphemes. Morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words are calledfree morphemes, those that do not stand on their own but need to be attached to another form are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes can be inflectional (plural -s, the third-person singular -s, the past tense ed, the present participle -ing, the comparative -er, and the superlative -est) or derivational (suffixes like -ish, -ous, -y, -able, ness, and prefixes like im-, re-, non-, pre-). DEFINITIONS Morphology is "the study of internal structures of words" (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 257). 10 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Have a look at the following examples that show how words are formed by morphemes. The free morphemes in the examples are underlined. toys = toy_ + s painter = paint + er foolishness = fool + ish + ness drank = drink + irregular a bookcase = book + case precook = pre + cook unimaginable = un + imagine + able flowerpots = flower + pat + s COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the morphemes in the words below, and decide which morphemes are free and which bound. Underline the free morphemes. teacher irresistible teeth talking keyboard against disqualified submit careless buses running unexpectedly dislocated bargain ANSWERS Identify the morphemes in the words below, and decide which morphemes are free and which bound. Underline the free morphemes. teacher teach + er irresistible ir + resist + ible teeth tooth + ee (irregular plural) talking talk + ing keyboard key + board 11 introduction to grammar against against disqualified dis + qualifi + ed submit submit careless care + less buses bus + es running run+ning unexpectedly un+expect+ed+ly dislocated dis+locat+ed bargain bargain The branch of linguistics that studies the way words are arranged into larger units of language is called syntax. Syntax deals with grammatical relations between words and other units within the sentence, it deals with word order and sentence formation. Unlike words, sentences are not finite in numbers and are not learnt individually. Speakers combine words and group them together following the grammatical principles to produce lan- guage. The basic unit in syntax is a phrase. A phrase can be one word only, or it can be a group of words that stay together when moved within a sentence. Phrases are joined together to form clauses, which are units of grammar that stand higher than a phrase, but lower than a sentence. A clause typically has its own subject and verb and can stand on its own (in which case it is called a sentence), or it can be a part of a larger sentence. A sentence is the largest unit in grammar, it can consist of one or more clauses. The following example demonstrates the difference between the clause and sentence. The example sentence has two clauses (one main and one subordinate). The main clause {the dog barked at him.) can stand on its own and can therefore also function as a sentence. The subordinate clause {When the man broke into the house) depends on the main clause, it cannot stand on its own as it does not provide a complete thought, and cannot be considered a sentence. The two clauses form a sentence with one independent (main) clause and one dependent (subordinate) clause. When the man broke into the house = subordinate clause } sentence the dog barked at him. = main clause 12 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika DEFINITIONS Syntax is "the study of the structure of sentences through the arrangement of words into phrases, phrases into clauses, and clauses into sentences" (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 409). 1.5 Types of words We can look at words from different perspectives. One way is considering possible senses of the term word. • Orthographic words are words as we know them from written language. These are words on paper in books, magazines or newspapers, or words we read on product packaging, advertisement notices, or words we can read on the internet or in word processors. They can be typed or hand-written and they have spaces in between them to indicate the beginning and end of individual words. • Grammatical words are words that fall into grammatical word classes (also called parts of speech). The orthographic word leaves can be either a verb (in the 3rd person singular) or a noun (the plural of leaf). In this course we deal with words from the grammatical perspective. • Lexemes are words that share the same meaning, similar form, and are of the same word class. The word leave, leaves, left, and leaving are all members of the same verb lexeme leave. We know lexemes as entries in dictionaries. Each time a word appears in a spoken or written text, we call it a token. When the same word is repeated, we call it type. An article in the newspaper may have the total number of 1,000 words (tokens), but only 400 unique occurrences (types), because certain words appear in the text more than once. The following sentence has 9 tokens, but only 7 types, because the article a and the word wine are repeated. A good wine is a wine that you like. 9 tokens, 7 types 1.6 Families of words Words can be grouped into families according to their main function and their grammatical behaviour. 13 introduction to grammar 1.6.1 CONTENT WORDS Content words (also called lexical words) are the main carriers of information and meaning in a sentence. Content words are the most numerous words of all the word families. They include these word classes: • nouns e.g. boy, horse, book, love, water, education • lexical verbs e.g. live, say, go, work, smile, help, consider • adjectives e.g. easy, tired, beautiful, fashionable, unique • adverbs e.g. quickly, happily, daily, clockwise, upwards Content words often have a complex structure, they consist of more morphemes. They are generally the words that are stressed most in speech. Content words are referred to as open class words, because we can add new words to these classes. Every year the Oxford English Dictionary announces the word of the year, which is a word that has attracted a great deal of interest and was used extensively in the given year, often reflecting a new life reality. To name a few, the word of the year in 2009 was unfriend, in 2013 it was selfie, in 2014 vape, and in 2016 it was the term post-truth. 1.6.2 FUNCTION WORDS Function words are words that do not have a clear lexical meaning but they have a grammatical function, they help express grammatical relationships among other words in a sentence. In this respect they are just as important as content words. Their job is to signal structural relationships and help hold sentences together. Function words are: • articles a, an, the • auxiliary verbs e.g. do, be, have, must, can, should • pronouns e.g. he, she, them, us, myself, every, all, some, this, who, any • prepositions e.g. from, into, on, out of • conjunctions e.g. and, or, but, because, when, while Function words form a closed class, which means that it is very uncommon for a new function words to be created. There are only about 150 function words in English. Although they are small in numbers, they are used at a very high rate and make up about 50% of any English text. In fluent speech function words are typically unstressed. COMPREHENSION CHECK Underline the content words in the sentences. 1. Is it really going to rain tomorrow? 14 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2. He spooned the ice cream into a cup and fed it to her. 3. The news apparently came as a complete surprise to everybody. 4. How many people are there in your family? We arrived at the station early, but waited until noon for the bus. 5. Mary has lived in England for ten years. 6. He's going to fly to Chicago next week. 7. I don't understand this chapter of the book. 8. John had eaten lunch before his colleague arrived. 9. The trees along the river are beginning to blossom. 10. Our friends called us yesterday and asked if we'd like to visit them on Tuesday. ANSWERS Underline the content words in the sentences. 1. Is it really going to rain tomorrow? 2. He spooned the ice cream into a cup and fed it to her. 3. The news apparently came as a complete surprise to everybody. 4. How many people are there in your family? We arrived at the station early, but waited until noon for the bus. 5. Mary has lived in England for ten years. 6. He's going to fly to Chicago next week. 7. I don't understand this chapter of the book. 8. John had eaten lunch before his colleague arrived. 9. The trees along the river are beginning to blossom. 10. Our friends called us yesterday and asked if we'd like to visit them on Tuesday. 1.7 Structures of words Another way of looking at words is according to the way they have been formed, that is looking at words according to their structure. 1.7.1 INFLECTION Inflection is a change in the form of a content word that expresses a grammatical function or quality such as tense, mood, person, case, and gender. Nouns take inflections marking plural form (-s) and the genitive case ('s, s'). In verbs inflections express 3rd person singular in present tense (inflection -s), past tense (inflection -ed), past participle 15 introduction to grammar (inflection -ed), and present participle (inflection -ing). Adjectives and adverbs take inflections to form comparatives (-er) and superlatives (-est). The following table shows examples for all the word classes that take inflectional suf- fixes. Table 2: Inflections by word class Word class Base form example Forms with inflectional suffixes nouns sister plural (sisters), genitive (sister's, sisters') verbs like do singular present tense (likes, does), past tense (liked, did), past participle (liked, done), ingparticiple (liking, doing) adjectives nice comparative (nicer), superlative (the nicest) adverbs fast comparative (faster), superlative (the fastest) 1.7.2 DERIVATION Derivation is a process of forming a new word from existing word by means of affixation. A new morpheme attached to the beginning of a word is called a prefix, a new morpheme attached to the end of the word is called a suffix. While inflection does not change the part of speech of the word, the derivation process not only results in a change of meaning, but it can also create new nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Derived words can be built up using a number of different prefixes and suffixes, the new word can have several morphemes, e.g. un+touch+able, ir+resist+ible, or industri+al+ise. Table 3: Examples of derivational suffixes Word class Suffix Example adjective to noun -ness happy —> happiness adjective to verb -ise modern —> modernise -en black —* blacken adjective to adjective -ish green —> greenish adjective to adverb -ly personal —> personally noun to adjective -al recreation —> recreational -Jul hope —* hopeful -les price —* priceless -ic optimist —* optimistic -ous adventure —* adventurous noun to verb -Jy glory -> glorify 16 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika verb to adjective -able -ive drink —> drinkable assert —* assertive verb to noun -er work —> worker Derivational prefixes typically do not result in the change of word class, they only change the meaning of the word. Among the few examples of derivational prefixes that change the part of speech are a- (sleep —* asleep), be- (friend —* befriend), or en- (slave —* enslave). Table 4: Examples of derivational prefixes Prefix Example anti- antifreeze, antivirus co- co-operate, co-worker dis- disagree, disconnect, disrespect de- decode, defrost ex- ex-husband, ex-friend mis- misinform, misunderstanding pre- pre-wash, prequel re- redo, reorganise un- unsee, untie, unexpected trans- transformation, transplant under- undergo, undercut out- outdo, outperform, outsourcing un- uncover, unpack, untie over- overcook, overdone, overbook 1.7.3 COMPOUNDING Compounding is a process when two or more words are joined together to make one word. The component stems of a compound can be of the same word class (e.g. two nouns news+paper) or they may belong to different word classes (e.g. an adjective and a noun black-aboard). Typical combinations are: • noun+noun: life+style, girl-friend, maid-servant, flower-pot • verb+noun: cook+book, guess-work • adjective+noun: blue+bird, red+head • noun+adjective: water-tight • preposition+noun: by+stander, after-life • preposition+verb: hair-cut, snow-fall 17 introduction to grammar Compounds are pronounced with the main stress on the first element, and they have a meaning that cannot be determined from the individual parts (e.g. small talk is a light informal conversation that takes place in social situations, not a talk that is small). Compounds are typically spelt as a single word, but they can be hyphenated (e.g. sixpack, son-in-law) or even written as two separate words (e.g. ice cream, middle class). Often more than just one spelling option is acceptable (e.g. flower pot, flower-pot, or flowerpot). It is always advisable to check the correct spelling in a dictionary. DEFINITIONS "Inflection is a change in the form of a word by adding inflections in order to indicate grammatical differences of tense, number, gender, case, etc." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 215). "Derivation is the formation process of forming a new lexeme by adding an affix to an existing lexeme." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 115). "Compounding is the word formation process of forming compound words by joining at least two independent words (bases, lexemes) together." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 85). COMPREHENSION CHECK Decide whether the words were formed by means of inflection, derivation or com- pounding. desktop swims overcook byproduct cat's artistic children greenhouse listened unzip fearless written miniskirt bookshop inventive 18 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ANSWERS Decide whether the words were formed by means of inflection, derivation or com- pounding. desktop compounding swims inflection overcook derivation byproduct derivation cat's inflection artistic derivation children inflection greenhouse compounding listened inflection unzip derivation fearless derivation written inflection miniskirt compounding bookshop compounding inventive derivation SUMMARY The first chapter introduced the key terminology of the English grammar. You learnt the difference between standard and non-standard English, and the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Now you understand the terms morphology and syntax and can identify free and bound morphemes, as well as distinguish a clause from a sentence. You also know what content and function words are and you can identify them. This knowledge helps you decide where stress goes in a sentence. In the last part of the chapter you found out about different structures of words and you now know the difference between inflection, derivation, and compounding. 19 Content words 2 CONTENT WORDS QUICK OVERVIEW The second chapter brings an overview of a grammatical category called content words. In English the content words are nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn to recognise and identify nouns • learn to recognise and identify lexical verbs • learn to recognise and identify adjectives • learn to recognise and identify adverbs content words, nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, adverbs 2.1 Content words In the previous chapter you have learnt about the distinction of content and function words in English. Before we look at individual parts of speech that feature content words, it is important to note that in English the affiliation of a word to a particular word class is often a rather fluid notion. What this means is that many English words can operate as various parts of speech, depending on the context in which they are used. To demonstrate this, consider the words table and fast. Most people would identify the word table as a noun, and the word fast as an adjective. And in the following examples, they would be right. Helen put her cup of tea down on the bedside table. Josh was known among his friends as a veryfast driver. 20 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika However, the word table can also serve as an adjective or a verb. Let's go to IKEA this weekend, I need a new table lamp. They've tabled the motion criticising the Governmentfor doing nothing. The word fast can have the function of an adverb, a verb or a noun. This war wasfoughtfast and relatively bloodlessly. Ifastedfor a day and a halffollowing a weekeend ofgluttony. Thefast is broken at sunset, traditionally with dates and water. This ambiguity of words should not be seen as a disadvantage, but rather as a means to multiply the use of many words and make language more suited to our needs and wishes. We only need to remember that it is important to always consider words with regard to the circumstances in which they appear. In the following subchapters we will set aside the issue of ambiguity and consider the general characteristics of the four content words classes from the semantic, morphological, and syntactic perspective. In other words, we will look at the individual word classes from the point of view of meaning, word structure, and the position in a phrase or a sen- tence. 2.1.1 NOUNS Nouns are often defined as words that describe a person, thing, or a place. Depending whether they refer to tangible or intangible things, we classify them as concrete or abstract. Concrete nouns name people, places, animals, or things we can see or touch, or that have some physical properties (e.g. child, plant, stone, country, dog, air, water). A sub-category of concrete nouns are proper nouns, which are nouns used for an individual person, place, or organisation (e.g. Mary, Europe, London, Buckingham Palace, Microsoft, OSN) and which are spelled with capital letters. Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to concepts, ideas, feelings, characteristics, attributes, and generally all things you cannot see or touch (e.g. love, envy, truth, talent, failure, peace). Morphologically, nouns have inflectional suffixes that mark the plural number (mostly -s), and they can form the genitive case by adding 's or only the apostrophe (e.g. sister's toy, sisters' toys). Nouns often contain more than just one morpheme. We identify compound nouns and nouns with derivational suffixes. • compound nouns: bookcase, football, boyfriend, desktop, toothpaste • nouns with derivational suffixes: teach+er, father+hood, friend+ship, modest+y Syntactically, nouns appear at the most important element of the noun phrase (e.g. [the most important story]) and as such they are often placed at the beginning of a sentence in the form of a subject. They also help form prepositional phrases (e.g. [in the kitchen]). 21 Content words COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the nouns below as concrete, abstract or proper. reality The White House sleep Fluffy paper thought Madrid humour foot California Google excitement loyalty coffee Jeremy ANSWERS Identify the nouns below as concrete, abstract or proper. reality abstract The White House proper sleep abstract Fluffy proper paper concrete thought abstract Madrid proper humour abstract foot concrete California proper Google proper excitement abstract loyalty abstract coffee concrete Jeremy proper 22 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2.1.2 LEXICAL VERBS Verbs indicate actions, processes, conditions, or states of people or things that happen or exist in time. Verbs play a paramount role in the structure of a sentence, without a verb the sentence is not complete. A verb is the most important element in the predicate (other elements are optional) and together with the subject it forms a full sentence. Finite verbs show tense, person, and number. They appear both in main clauses and subordinate clauses. She was sitting on the bench outside the house. Does he know about the meeting? We went upstairs to change. Non-finite verbs are not marked for tense, person, and number. Non-finite verbs are infinitive forms with or without to, -ing (present participle) forms, and -ed (past participle) forms. Finite verbs occur in dependent clauses that combine with independent clauses to form sentences. In such sentences reference to time, person, and number is interpreted from context or from information in the finite clause. • to infinitive • bare infinitive • -ing participle • -ed participle To open, tear the tab. Worn out by heat, they stoppedfor a drink. Looking around, he noticed a letter on the desk. The bookfinished,she felt a little disappointed. The grammatical categories we identify are tense and aspect, which together form grammatical tense, then voice and mood. Table 5: Grammatical classification of verbs TENSE present, past tense + aspect = grammatical tense ASPECT simple, perfect, progressive, perfect progressive tense + aspect = grammatical tense VOICE active, passive MOOD indicative, imperative, subjunctive Morphologically, we identify the base form, -s form (3rd person singular), present participle, past form and past participle. Regular verbs have four forms, because the past form and past participle are the same. Irregular verbs have from five to eight forms. The most complex irregular verb in English is the verb be with its eight forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being. 23 Content words Table 6: Formal classification of verbs Form Example Function base work, eat infinitive, present tense (except 3rd person sg), subjunctive -s form works, eats 3rd person sg of the present tense present participle working, eating continuous tenses past form worked, ate simple past tense past participle worked, eaten passive, perfect tenses Syntactically, lexical verbs most commonly occur on their own. Verbs act as the central part of the clause, they are typically placed after the subject and before any other elements in the clause. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the verbs in bold as either finite or non-finite. 1. She worked hard to pass the test. 2. I couldn't solve the problem. 3. The doctor is attending to the injured people. 4. Finding the door wide open, the thief walked in. 5. We had the roof repaired before winter. 6. Susan has done her homework. 7. She doesn't like to do anything. 8. It's easy to find faults with others. ANSWERS Identify the verbs in bold as either finite or non-finite. 1. She worked hard to pass the test. non-finite 2. I couldn't solve the problem. finite 3. The doctor is attending to the injured people. finite 4. Finding the door wide open, the thief walked in. non-finite 5. We had the roof repaired before winter. non-finite 6. Susan has done her homework. finite 7. She doesn't like to do anything. finite 8. It's easy to find faults with others. non-finite 24 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 2.1.3 ADJECTIVES Adjectives are describing words. They describe the qualities of people, things, and abstractions (e.g. a smart man, a dirty car, a complicated thought) and can refer to qualities such as opinion, emotion, sound, taste, touch, size, weight, smell, speed, temperature, shape, distance, colour, time, material, or purpose. Most adjectives are gradable, which means they can be compared and modified for the degree or level of the quality they are describing. Non-gradable adjective refer to a quality, which is already superlative (unique, horrible), or non-gradable (stationary, broken, dead). Morphologically, gradable adjectives take inflectional suffixes -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative form. Just like nouns, adjectives often contain more than just one morpheme. They are mostly derived, but there are also compound adjectives. • derived adjectives: sunny, lively, financial, genetic, comfortable, dangerous, hopeful, tireless, attractive, childish • compound adjectives: home-made, part-time, open-minded, four-foot, last-minute Syntactically, adverbs occur as the most important element of an adjective phrase. Adjectives are also often used as modifiers in noun phrases. Adjectives can be used attributively, which means they come before a noun, or predicatively, i.e. they follow a verb. The typical verbs followed by adjectives are e.g. be, become, seem, appear, feel, grow, keep, look, make, smell, sound, taste, turn; we call these verbs linking or copular. Some adjectives can be used both in the attributive and predicative position (e.g. a hungry man, the man is hungry), some are only attributive (e.g. former, latter, upper, utter), others exclusively predicative (e.g. afraid, alive, asleep). 2.1.4 ADVERBS Adverbs typically function as modifiers of the words, phrases, or even sentences they precede or follow. In the following examples the underlined words are modified by adverbs in bold. • verbs She was singing loudly. She often made mistakes. • adverbs He spoke rather boldly. • adjectives You 're quite right. He's highly intelligent. • nouns / bought only bread. • noun phrases / meant quite the opposite. • prepositional phrases She drove us almost to the station. • sentences Frankly, I'm tired. I think she's leaving shortly. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives or nouns by taking the suffix -ly (e.g. deeply, finally, nicely, possibly, daily, partly). Adverbs can also be formed by combining two 25 Content words or more morphemes into one word (e.g. anyway, nowhere, furthermore, upstairs, maybe, besides, someday). Syntactically, adverbs occur as heads of adverb phrases. They also appear in adjective phrases where they function as modifiers. Adverb phrases often acts as adverbials in the sentence. They can be placed at the beginning, in the middle (central) position between the subject and verb, or at the end of a sentence. SUMMARY In the second chapter you learnt to recognise and identify content words. The word classes discussed were nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. You can now distinguish concrete, abstract, and proper nouns, identify finite and non-finite verbs, and recognise adjectives and adverbs. 26 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3 FUNCTION WORDS QUICK OVERVIEW The third chapter brings an overview of function words, that is determiners, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and interjections. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn to recognise and identify determiners • learn to recognise and identify pronouns • learn to recognise and identify auxiliary verbs • learn to recognise and identify prepositions • learn to recognise and identify conjunctions • learn to recognise and identify particles • learn to recognise and identify interjections KEYWORDS function words, determiners, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections 3.1 Function words We know from Chapter 1 that function words are words which have ambiguous meaning, have very little or no semantic content, and whose job is to express grammatical relations within a sentence. Unlike content words, function words represent a closed class, i.e. their number is fairly final. The following subchapters offer a survey of word classes that fall in this category, considering their meaning and syntactic role. 3.1.1 DETERMINERS Determiners typically precede nouns and their job is to clarify or modify the meaning of nouns. They may indicate whether the noun is referring to a concrete thing or person, a 27 function words specific number or quantity, to a closer or more distant element, or how something is distributed or divided. The following table shows an overview of the most important determiners in English. Table 7: Determiners Determiner Meaning Example Definite article Definite article is used to refer to a specific noun. the Indefinite article Indefinite article refers to a general version of a noun. a, an Demonstratives Demonstratives are used to point at items, making them more specific than definite articles. this, that, these, those Possesives Posessives are used to indicate my, your, his, her, its, ownership. our, their Quantifiers Quantifiers indicate how much or how a few, a little, many, many of the noun(s) is being discussed. much, a lot of, some, any, enough Distributives Distributives show different ways of each, every, any, either, looking at individuals within a group, neither and they express how something is distributed, shared, or divided. Wh- determiners Similarly to demonstratives, wh- determiners show possession. which, what, whose Numerals Numerals as determiners refer to an exact number or to order in a sequence. one, two, first, second 3.1.2 PRONOUNS Pronouns can substitute a noun or a whole noun phrase. Pronouns often replace nouns for the purpose of brevity and to avoid repetition. The following table presents the eight type of pronouns in English. Table 8: Pronouns Pronoun Meaning Example Personal pronouns Personal pronouns refer to people, animals, or inanimate objects. They may be classified by person, number, gender, and case. /, you, he, she, it, me, him, them Possesive pronouns Possessive pronouns are used to indicate posession. my, your, his, yours, mine, ours 28 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Demonstrative pro- Demonstrative pronouns are used this, that, those, these nouns to show, indicate, or point at people or objects. Reflexive pronouns Reflexive pronouns are used to myself, yourself, herrefer back to the subject of the self, themselves sentence. Reciprocal pronouns Reciprocal pronouns are used each other, one anowhen each or two or more sub- ther jects are acting the same way towards each other. Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns have a gene- all, some, many, noboral indefinite meaning. dy, someone Relative pronouns Relative pronouns are used to who, whom, which, introduce relative clauses. that Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to who, what, when, wheask questions. re, why 3.1.3 AUXILIARY VERBS Auxiliary verbs form two categories. In the first category belong primary auxiliaries {do, be, have). Depending on how they are used in a sentence, they can all act as lexical verbs as well. As an auxiliary verb, do is used to form questions and negatives in the present simple and past simple tense. It is also used to emphasise the meaning of the lexical verb (e.g. Do sit down, or But I did tell him about it.) The auxiliary do is further used in short answers, in tag questions, and in order to avoid repetition of the same verb (e.g. He left school earlier than I did.) The verb have as an auxiliary is used to form present perfect and past perfect tenses, be it in the positive or negative form, or in questions. The auxiliary be is used to form progressive aspect of the present and past tenses, to form passive voice, and to express the modal meaning of a planned, possible, or necessary action (e.g. The conference was to be held in June, or What am I to tell him?) The second category of auxiliary verbs are modal auxiliaries. Modal auxiliaries are the verbs can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, ought to, and some grammar books also list the verbs need and dare in this categories, often with the note that these are semi-modals rather than modals. What sets the verbs need and dare aside is the fact that they can be used as standard lexical verbs as well. For example You don't need to come tomorrow, has the same meaning as You needn't come tomorrow. 29 function words The modal verbs form a special category because they have a set of qualities other auxiliary verbs do not possess. • Negation is formed by adding the negative particle not. • Questions are formed by means of simple inversion. • There is no -s in 3rd person singular. • Modal verbs are used in short answers and repetitions. • Modal verbs are followed by bare infinitives (except ought to). 3.1.4 PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are function words whose job is to link words together in a sentence. They connect ideas, object, people, and time or place references. One way of looking at prepositions is that they are the glue that holds sentences together. They do this by expressing position and movement, possession, time, place, and the way an action is com- pleted. Most prepositions are polysemantic, which means they have more than just one meaning. The meaning is determined by the meaning of the word before which the preposition stands or on which the preposition depends. Based on form, we identify: • simple prepositions: at, on, from, to, into • complex prepositions: along with, as for, due to, because of, by means of, in comparison with, in front of Typical combinations prepositions occur in are: • preposition + noun: / gave the book to Charlie. • preposition + pronoun: / gave it to him. • preposition + gerund: He devotes his time to reading. Within a sentence prepositions are often placed at the end, especially in: • questions Who were you talking to ? • relative clauses This is the house I told you about. • passive constructions Everything he said was laughed at. • infinitive clauses He's impossible to work with. 30 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 3.1.5 CONJUNCTIONS Like prepositions, conjunctions also link words and phrases together, but they also join clauses to make sentences. Their job is to help build a meaningful relationship within a sentence, and also between clauses. There are three basic types of conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join (or coordinate) two or more items that are of equal importance. In English there are seven coordinating conjunctions - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. We can remember them as a mnemonic acronym FANBOYS. Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause with a dependent clause. Some examples of subordinating conjunctions are after, although, as, as soon as, because, before, even if, in order that, since, than, though, when, whenever, while. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. Some examples are either...or, not only...but also, neither...nor, both...and, the...the, as...as, no sooner...than, rather...than. 3.1.6 INTERJECTIONS Interjections represent the most primitive type of utterance. They are very frequent in spoken and informal language. Interjections generally serve as a means of expressing feelings and emotions, whether positive (e.g. joy, pleasure, surprise, excitement) or negative (e.g. pain, anger, disappointment, disillusion). Interjections can have two meanings: 1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. Ah! is it you ? Ah! what anguish! Oh, how cold it is! Oooops! Wow, that's great! 2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. Hush! did you not hear the sound? Oi, you there! Listen! I didn't do it! Interjections can also be classified according to their origin. 1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple, primitive utterances, e.g. ah, oh, eh, phew, hush, yippee, wow, ouch, ewww, hmph. 31 function words 2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. Examples of secondary interjections are well, now, here, there, come, why, dear me, fuck it, hang it, etc. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the parts of speech in the sentences. 1. John likes the blue house at the end of the street. 2. Where is my suitcase? 3. He will practice his musical piece soon. 4. Hurray, our team has finally scored! 5. I want the house, although I know it's expensive. 6. We can certainly use your help during the ordeal. 7. Some of these stories are often discussed. 8. Jack is always watching a football game. Identify the parts of speech in the sentences. 1. John likes the blue house at the end of the street. noun, verb, determiner, adjective, noun, preposition, determiner, noun, preposition, determiner, noun 2. Where is my suitcase? adverb, verb, pronoun, noun 3. He will practice his musical piece soon. pronoun, verb, verb, pronoun, adjective, noun, adverb 4. Hurray, our team has finally scored! interjection, pronoun, noun, verb, adverb, verb 5. / want the house, although I know it's expensive. pronoun, verb, determiner, noun, conjunction, pronoun, verb, pronoun, verb, adjective 6. We can certainly use your help during the ordeal. pronoun, verb, adverb, verb, pronoun, noun, preposition, determiner, noun 32 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 7. Some of these stories are often discussed. pronoun, preposition, determiner, noun, verb, adverb, verb 8. Jack is always watching afootball game. noun, verb, adverb, verb, determiner, adjective, noun SUMMARY In the third chapter you learnt to recognise and identify function words. The word classes discussed were determiners, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and interjections. 33 phrase 4 PHRASE QUICK OVERVIEW The fourth chapter of the introductory course into grammar presents principal syntactic terms. It explains the difference between phrase and sentence and it further introduces different types of phrases (noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase). AIMS In this chapter you will • learn to identify and name noun phrase • learn to identify and name verb phrase • learn to identify and name adjective phrase • learn to identify and name adverb phrase • learn to identify and name prepositional phrase phrase, head, noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase 4.1 Phrases A phrase is the basic building unit of the part of grammar called syntax. A phrase may consist of a single word or a set of words that are related within a sentence and act as a single unit. The number of words in a phrase is not limited. Unlike a sentence, a phrase does not have a subject and predicate, it is not a complete unit of utterance. A phrase serves as a component in a sentence. 34 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika For example the phrase [in the evening] gives us information about time, but we do not know the subject (who) or the activity (what). To complete the information, we need to add more phrases. [I] I'm seeing] [my friends] [in the evening]. The example sentence above contains four phrases, which together provide complete information about someone seeing their friends in the evening. Every phrase in the sentence provides a different type of information. Put together, all the phrases form a complete sentence that contains all the necessary information. There are two useful techniques that can help us identify a phrase and distinguish it from other phrases. The first technique involves substituting multi-word units by a single word. When you can replace a whole set of words with a single word while keeping the sentence complete, you get your evidence that the replaced words belong to the same category and they form a phrase. This technique is called substitution. 1. Substitution = multi-word phrases can be replaced by a single word [Students] should study this material. -[You] should study this material. [All students] should study this material. ~[ You] should study this material. [All the students in this class] should study this material. ~ [You] should study this material. The second technique that helps us identify a phrase is called the movement test. If it is possible to move a set of words to a different position in the sentence, it is a signal that the whole set belongs together and therefore forms a phrase. Sometimes the movement can involve a change of grammatical structure, e.g. a change from active to passive voice. 2. Movement test = phrase can be moved as a unit to a different position [All the students in this class] should study this material. This material should be studied by [all the students in this class]. I'm seeing my friends [in the evening]. [In the evening] I'm seeing my friends. 1 In syntax we mark phrases by putting them into square brackets. 35 phrase Df DEFINITIONS "A phrase is a linguistic unit at a level between the word and the clause." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 307). 4.2 Types of phrases The function of a phrase depends on its construction and place in a sentence. A phrase can act as a noun, an adjective, an adverb or a preposition. Every phrase has a central element referred to as the head of the phrase. The head of the phrase is obligatory, any other elements coming before or after the head are optional. Depending on the word class of the head, we recognise five types of phrases - noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AdjP), adverb phrase (AdvP), and prepositional phrase (PP). The following table shows the five types of phrases with their heads, and gives an example for each phrase type. Table 9: Types of phrases Phrase type Head Example Noun Phrase noun/pronoun [the students in my class] Verb Phrase verb [has been playing] Adjective Phrase adjective [delighted to meet you] Adverb Phrase adverb [very quickly] Prepositional Phrase preposition [in the garden] 4.2.1 NOUN PHRASE (NP) The head of a noun phrase is either a noun or a pronoun. Often only a noun or a pronoun form the whole phrase as seen in the examples below. [People] want to be loved. [I] am happy with the result. [Everybody] cheered [him] on. Sometimes the phrase contains other words, for example determiners (e.g. the, all, his, that) or quantifiers {e.g. first, next, many, few). [All my children] still live at home. 36 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika [Both of his younger brothers] are in the army. [Those two suitcases] are mine. When the phrase consists of either a noun or pronoun or when it includes other elements, such as articles, possessive or demonstrative pronouns, numerals, or quantifiers, we call it the basic noun phrase. The elements that stand before the head are called determinatives. Determinatives can further be subdivided into pre-determiners (all, both, half twice, double), determiners (articles, pronouns, some, any, each, every) and postdeterminers (numerals and quantifiers). Table 10: Basic noun phrase closed-system items open-class items DETERMINATIVES PRE- DETERMINERS POST-DETERMINERS HEADS DETERMINERS all the, a, an, 0 one, two,... (cardinal nuboth my, your, his, her, merals) half their,... first, second,... (ordinal nutwice this, that,... merals) nouns double whose (general numerals) next, last, pronouns some, any previous,... each, every (quantifiers) many, much, few, little, another, other,... [all the answers] [our last trip] [her few friends] [both his brothers] COMPREHENSION CHECK Determine the elements in the basic noun phrases. 1. all those books 3. the next lesson 5. his brother 2. my first kiss 4. her many lies 6. both her sisters DETERMINATIVE HEADPRE-DETERMINER DETERMINER POSTDETERMINER HEAD 37 phrase 0 ANSWERS Determine the elements in the basic noun phrases. 1. all those books 3. the next lesson 5. his brother 2. my first kiss 4. her many lies 6. both her sisters DETERMINATIVE HEADPRE-DETERMINER DETERMINER POSTDETERMINER HEAD all those books my first kiss the next lesson her many lies his brother both her sisters Apart from determinatives, the phrase can also include other elements, which can be placed before or after the head. Elements preceding the head are called premodifiers, those following it are called postmodifiers. Table 11: Complex noun phrase closed-class items open-class items DETERMINATIVE PREMODIFIER HEAD POSTMODIFIER adjectives prepositional phrases pre-determiners nouns noun non-finite clauses determiners participles pronoun finite clauses post-determiners adverbs adverbs complementations [all the tired students in this class] [the first girl to help me] [some big old houses] Below you will find examples of premodifiers. • adjectives those big boxes, an important meeting, • nouns the university students, a stone wall • participles long-awaited announcement • adverbs the late Mrs Cooper • others these men's clothes, his I don't know expression 38 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Below you will find examples of postmodifiers. prepositional phrases non-finite clauses finite (relative) clauses adverbs those big boxes in the garage the students willing to volunteer the students who are willing to volunteer many big towns nearby complementations (of adj) a bigger car than that COMPREHENSION CHECK Determine the elements in the complex noun phrase. 1. the other teachers at school 2. all those wooden shelves for sale 3. some truly happy memories 4. all the promises to keep 5. your old blue scarf DETERMINATIVE PREMODIFIER HEAD POSTMODIFIER ANSWERS Determine the elements in the complex noun phrase. 1. the other teachers at school 2. all those wooden shelves for sale 3. some truly happy memories 4. all the promises to keep 5. your old blue scarf DETERMINATIVE PREMODIFIER HEAD POSTMODIFIER the other teacher at school all those wooden shelves for sale some truly happy memories all the promises to keep your old blue scarf 39 phrase 4.2.2 VERB PHRASE (VP) The head of a verb phrase is a verb. When the phrase has only one verb, the phrase is called a simple verb phrase. Simple verb phrases are used to form declarative sentences in simple and simple past tenses. Negative sentences and questions with the verb be also include a simple verb phrase. She [lives] next door. They [took] it home with them. [Were] you there? Complex verb phrases are used to form interrogative or negative sentences where an auxiliary verb is needed to form the structure, or declarative sentences with a modal verb or an auxiliary verb. They are used to form present perfect and past perfect tense, and all progressive tenses, as well as sentences. Complex verb phrases may include the following structures: • auxiliary + lexical verb [Did] he [warn] you ? I [did tell] him about it. • modal + lexical verb / [can't take] it any more. We [must send] them a thank-you letter. • auxiliary have + -ed participle of a lexical verb (perfect aspect) We['ve talked] about many times. • auxiliary be + -ing participle of a lexical verb (progressive aspect) Tears [were rolling] down herface. • auxiliary be + -ed participle of a lexical verb (passive voice) Brokeback Mountain [was banned] in some countries. He [is being interviewed] as we speak. 4.2.3 ADJECTIVE PHRASE (ADJP) In an adjective phrase, the head word is an adjective. Susan is [happy]. The doctor is [very late]. My sister is [fond of animals]. The adjective phrase can be premodified, typically by an adverb. [extremely disappointed] [absolutely stunning] [rather shy] The adjective head can also take complements, typically in the form of a prepositional phrase or a to infinitive non-finite clause. [happy to meet you] [covered in mud] [afraid of the dark] 40 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 4.2.4 ADVERB PHRASE (ADVP) The head of an adverb phrase is an adverb. Most commonly the premodifier is another adverb. [very recently] [quite suddenly] [unexpectedly late] Postmodifiers of adverb phrases are quite uncommon, here are some examples: [unfortunately for him] [luckily for us] [quickly enough] 4.2.5 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) Prepositionalphrases are typically noun phrases with a preposition, which is why they are sometimes called prepositional noun phrases. The preposition serves as a link connecting the noun phrase to the rest of the sentence. Prepositional phrases almost always begin with a preposition. [above the kitchen sink] [with my brother] [in the morning] Sometimes there is a premodifier, typically an adverb. [straight through the window] [right over the bar] [soon after midnight] COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the types of the phrases in the brackets. 1. [My grandma] [always] [shops] [in several stores] [for the best buys]. 2. [We] [often] [visited] [them] [at their summer home]. 3. [Her new outfit] [was] [incredibly pricey]. 4. [We] [have gotten] [a lot of rain] [lately]. 5. [My younger sister] [painted] [her bedroom] [lemony yellow]. Mark the phrases by putting them in square brackets and then identify them. 1. One of our close relatives never drinks alcohol at the parties. 2. A woman in the window pleadingly cried for help. 3. She greeted the visitors respectfully. 4. His boss was extremely disappointed with the result. 5. I was driven almost mad by the whining sound. 41 phrase ANSWERS Identify the types of the phrases in the brackets. NP AdvP VP PP PP 1. [My grandma] [always] [shops] [in several stores] [for the best buys]. NP AdvP VP NP PP 2. [We] [often] [visited] [them] [at their summer home]. NP VP AdjP 3. [Her new outfit] [was] [incredibly pricey]. NP VP NP AdvP 4. [We] [have gotten] [a lot of rain] [lately]. NP VP NP AdjP 5. [My younger sister] [painted] [her bedroom] [lemony yellow]. Mark the phrases by putting them in square brackets and then identify them. NP AdvP VP NP PP 1. [One of our close relatives] [never] [drinks] [alcohol] [at the parties]. NP AdvP VP PrepP 2. [A woman in the window] [pleadingly] [cried] [for help]. NP VP NP AdvP 3. [She] [greeted] [the visitors] [respectfully]. NP VP AdjP PP 4. [His boss] [was] [extremely disappointed] [with the result]. NP VP AdjP PP 5. [I] [was driven] [almost mad] [by the whining sound]. SUMMARY The third chapter introduced the key terminology of the English grammar. You learnt the difference between phrase and sentence and you learnt to recognise and identify five types of phrases - noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, and prepositional phrase - and you now know how phrases are linked to form sentences. 42 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5 CLAUSE AND SENTENCE The fifth chapter of the introductory course into grammar presents the principal syntactic terms clause and sentence, and it introduces the terms subject and predicate. The chapter presents different typologies of sentences from the point of view or purpose and the number and type of clauses. AIMS In this chapter you will • learn to identify and name sentences according to the number and type of clauses (simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, compound-complex sen- tence) • learn to identify and name types of sentences according to purpose (declarative sentence, interrogative sentence, imperative sentence, exclamative sentence) KEYWORDS clause, sentence, dependent clauses, independent clauses, simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, compound-complex sentence, declarative sentence, interrogative sentence, imperative sentence, exclamative sentence 5.1 Clause and sentence In the previous chapters we learnt that clauses and sentences may look very similar, because they both have a subject and predicate (unlike phrases). What further complicates the situation is that a clause can sometimes act as a sentence. The difference lies in the completeness of information. While a sentence always conveys an independent meaning, a clause does not always contain a complete thought and needs to be paired up with another clause to form a full sentence. In writing a sentence always begins with a capital 43 clause and sentence letter and ends with a punctuation mark (full stop, question mark, or an exclamation point). Because a clause is often a part of sentence, it may only have one of these attrib- utes. Based on this notion, we distinguish two types of clauses. An independent clause can stand on its own as it communicates a complete meaning. The clauses that cannot stand on their own because they lack a completeness of thought are called dependent clauses. Dependent clauses are typically introduced by a subordinating conjunction. DEFINITIONS "A clause is a unit of grammar which typically involves a subject - predicate relationship, and which operates at a lever lower than a sentence, but higher than a phrase." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 64). "A sentence is the largest unit in grammar [...] often formulated in notional terms, e.g. as a set of words expressing a complete thought." (Aarts, Chalker and Weiner 2014, 375). 5.2 Types of clauses We now know that every clause contains a subject and predicate. Subject indicates the topic of the sentence, it consists of a noun phrase, and in declarative sentences it is typically placed at the beginning of the clause. Predicate provides a comment on the subject, it starts with a verb phrase, and it typically follows the subject. Sometimes, however, the predicate can precede the subject or it can be split with the subject placed in the middle as demonstrated in the following examples. SUBJECT The children My mother Harry PREDICATE baked some potatoes in the fire, was a friend ofhers, woke up with a start. A rere old plant is But now PREDICATE SUBJECT the ivy green. PREDICATE all is to be changed. 44 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BY NUMBER AND TYPE OF FINITE CLAUSES One possible classification of sentences is by the number and type of finite clauses in the sentence. We recognise simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. SIMPLE SENTENCE The first type is a simple sentence, which is a sentence with one main clause. The subject of the sentence can be simple (one subject) or compound (more subject referring to the same predicate). Joe spent the whole day looking for the wretched dog. Peter, Mary, and grandma with grandpa sat down to dinner. A simple sentence can also have a compound predicate, that is more than one verb referring to one subject. Helen opened her diary, wrote down the date, and then described her day in a minute detail. A combination of a compound subject and compound predicate is also possible. Bobby and his friends marched inside and demandedfood. COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence is a sentence with two or more independent clauses (also called main clauses) joined together by a coordinating conjunction. The coordinators in English are the conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. He should've been here atfive and he's not here yet. It rained so we stayed home. She was really busy that day, yet she promised to come. COMPLEX SENTENCE A complex sentence is a sentence with a main clause and one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). The clauses are joined together by subordinators. These are subordinating conjunctions (e.g. as, because, since, when, after, as soon as, while, since) or a relative pronoun {that, who, which). As soon as she opened the envelope, she knew something was wrong. We went to the movies after we'd finished studying. Although Mexico has the betterfootball team, it lost. 45 clause and sentence COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE A compound-complex sentence contains three or more clauses, at least two of which are independent and one is dependent. / don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they make her sneeze. You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct your mistakes. Joe went to bed early, but he was still tired when he woke up the next day. When it comes to punctuation, use a comma before the main clause in the sentence to avoid confusion. Using a comma before the conjunction is optional, but there is a tendency to skip the comma, especially in short sentences. When he handed in his homework, heforgot to give the teacher the last page. The teacher returned the homework (no comma) after she'd noticed the error. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the sentences as either simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 1. Since we had only gone a mile from camp, we could turn back before dark. 2. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus. 3. After the storm had passed, we went out into the fields, and I picked flowers. 4. I've brought my umbrella with me in case it rains. 5. Joe said he was so disappointed that he would not try again. 6. Do you want to go swimming tomorrow, or would you prefer to play tennis? 7. He got up, walked over to the window, and jumped out. 8. The sun is shining through the clouds, so we can go swimming. 9. You should brush your teeth before you go to bed. 10. Sarah cried when her cat got sick, but he soon got better. LZf ANSWERS Identify the sentences as either simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 1. complex 2. simple 3. compound-complex 4. complex 5. complex 6. compound 46 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 7. simple 8. compound 9. complex 10. compound-complex 5.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE Another way of classifying sentences is by their purpose. Depending on the purpose of the sentence, we distinguish declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative sen- tences. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES The purpose of a declarative sentence is to make a statement, provide information, give an explanation, or convey a fact. In declarative sentences the subject typically goes before the verb. Declarative sentences may be positive or negative. In writing they are punctuated by a full stop. The declarative sentence is the most common type of sentence in English. They lived happily ever after. I've never seen anything like that. My neighbour's dog chases all the cars going down our street. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question, make a request, or plea for information. In interrogative sentences the verb goes before the subject, often the question starts with a wh- word {who, what, when, where, why, how). In writing they are punctuated by a question mark. Why did she call you ? Do you know where she lives? Will you help me with this ? IMPERATIVE SENTENCES The purpose of imperative sentences is to make a demand, give a command, instruction, or make a request. The speaker orders the hearer to act in a certain way. The request can be accompanied by please to make it more polite. The imperative clause can end with a full stop or an exclamation mark. Never talk to me like that again. Don't touch it, it's mine. Get off the table. Have fun at the party. clause and sentence EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES An exclamative sentence expresses a strong emphatic content. It communicates emotions such as surprise, wonder, happiness, pity, or sympathy. The standard structure of an exclamative sentence is what/how + subject + verb + other elements. What a silly idea! How unfortunate! What big ears you have! COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the sentences as declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamative. 1. I can't wait for the party tonight. 2. Drop what you're doing and come celebrate with us. 3. I never saw him again after that. 4. Who are you taking to the prom? 5. Watch out for the oncoming traffic. 6. What a wonderful idea! 7. Pass the potatoes, please. 8. Why haven't you called sooner? 9. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. 10. How have you grown! ANSWERS Identify the sentences as declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamative. 1. declarative 2. imperative 3. declarative 4. interrogative 5. imperative 6. exclamative 7. imperative 8. interrogative 9. declarative 10. exclamative 48 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika SUMMARY The fifth chapter introduced the key terminology of the English grammar. You learnt the difference between dependent and independent clauses, which helped you identify types of sentences according to number and type of clauses (simple, compound, complex, and complex-compound) and according to purpose (declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative). 49 syntactic elements 6 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS QUICK OVERVIEW The sixth chapter of the introductory course into grammar presents the division of a clause into subject and predicate, then the division of predicate into individual syntactic elements (verb, object, complement, adverbial). AIMS In this chapter you will E learn to about the distinction between subject and predicate learn to identify subject learn to identify verb learn to identify three types of objects learn to identify three types of complements learn to identify five types of adverbials KEYWORDS subject, predicate, clause elements, subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial 6.1 Clause elements In the previous section you learnt that a clause can be divided into subject and predicate. A more fine-grained classification involves the division of predicate into other syntactic elements - verb, object, complement, and adverbial. The following diagram shows this division. CLAUSE / \ SUBJECT PREDICATE verb (object, complement, adverbial) 50 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika The subject and verb are the only compulsory elements, the remaining elements may or may not be present in a sentence. The example below shows three example sentences with all the clause elements present. subject verb object complement adverbial [They] [elected] [him] [president] [at the meeting]. [We] [found] [the house] [empty] [at last]. [The news][made] [his name] [popular] [at school]. 6.1.1 SUBJECT The subject of a sentence is traditionally said to be the topic or the 'doer' of the sentence, i.e. it tells us what the sentence is about. The subject typically comes before the verb in a declarative sentence, but inversion can take place to emphasize as demonstrated in the following examples. Here's the postman. Never have I experienced such rudeness. Formally, the subject is most often a noun phrase, but it can also be a clause. a) noun phrase The next meeting will be in March. One of my contact lenses fell on the floor. b) clause Finite clause: That-clause That she 's still alive is sheer luck. Nominal relative clause What he needs is another chance. Non-finite clause: To-infinitive To know all is to forgive all. -ing-clause Running in the rain refreshes all my senses. In English there is also a specific category of subjects called dummy subject (or prop subject) - existential there and introductory it. There and it are not true subjects, they only signal that the subject will follow. It's a good idea [to book early]. It's not surprising [that he failed]. There's [disagreement] among experts. There's [coffee] in this jar. 51 syntactic elements COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the subjects in the following sentences. 1. All parties wish to develop co-operation. 2. That he still loves her simply dumbfounds me. 3. Faint grew the sound of the bell. 4. Inside the house were two detectives. 5. It is exciting to learn new things. ANSWERS Identify the subjects in the following sentences. 1. [All parties] wish to develop co-operation. 2. [That he still loves her simply] dumbfounds me. 3. Faint grew [the sound of the bell]. 4. Inside the house were [two detectives]. 5. [It] = dummy subject is exciting [to learn new things]. 6.1.2 VERB Verb in a declarative sentence is always realised as a verb phrase. It typically takes the central position, which means it is placed after the subject, but before any other elements. The next meeting will be in March. I would never meddle in these matters. 6.1.3 OBJECT Object in a declarative sentence typically follows a transitive verb (an action verb where the action is transferred onto the object). It is mostly a noun phrase, but it can also be a clause, both finite or non-finite. a) noun phrase / sold the car. We invited them over. b) clause Finite: That-clause We think that this test is unnecessary. Wh-clause They eat what they can get. 52 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika Non-finite: Wh-infinitive clause To-infinitive clause Bare infclause -ing-clause DIRECT OBJECT (Od) Direct object answers the question WHO/WHAT? / like that restaurant. She kicked him in the shin. They stole a van and then they robbed a bank. INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi) Indirect object answers the question TO WHOM/TO WHAT? Indirect object cannot stand on its own, it always accompanies direct object. They handed me (Oi) a pile offorms (Od). Her mother sent her (Oi) a cheque (Od). Tell the police (Oi) the truth (Od). PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT (PrepO) Prepositional object typically appears in combination with a direct object, but it can also stand on its own. The prepositional object always has the form of a prepositional phrase. It answers the questions TO/FOR/ON/FROM.... WHO/WHAT? Give the parcel (Od) to him (Oprep). I base my decision (Od) on your reply (Oprep). We were waitingfor Tommy (Oprep). COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the Oi, Od, and PrepO in the following sentences. 1. You cannot teach an old dog new tricks. 2. He gave whoever opened the door a big smile. 3. Today we talked about Shakespeare. 4. He's teaching chemistry. 5. Paul gave a doll to his little sister. They don't know what to do. She wanted to know your e-mail address. She makes me laugh. I enjoy singing in the choir. 53 syntactic elements 0 ANSWERS Identify the Oi, Od, and PrepO in the following sentences. 1. You cannot teach [an old dog] [new tricks]. Oi, Od 2. He gave [whoever opened the door] [a big smile]. Oi, Od 3. Today we talked [about Shakespeare]. PrepO 4. He's teaching [chemistry]. Od 5. Paul gave [a doll] [to his little sister]. Od, PrepO 6.1.4 COMPLEMENT The syntactic element complement gives extra information about either subject or object. Complements are usually noun phrases or adjective phrases, sometimes also adverb phrases and prepositional phrases. SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (Cs) Subject complement provides more information on the subject. It occurs after linking verbs (also copular verbs). Typical linking verbs are the verbs appear, be, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste, become, get, go, grow, prove, turn, etc. My grandmother was a novelist. The leaves turned yellow this month. The child seemed restless. OBJECT COMPLEMENT (Co) Object complement provides more information on the object in the clause. It typically follows the object. They named him Albert. He painted the wall white. The secretary left all the letters unopened. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify Cs and Co in the following sentences. 1. They painted the cottage dark brown. 2. The library was a place of retreat. 3. They accepted her as the member of the group. 4. The task seemed impossible to complete. 54 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika 5. We found the guard sleeping. ANSWERS Identify Cs and Co in the following sentences. 1 2. 3. 4. 5. They painted the cottage [dark brown]. The library was [a place of retreat]. They accepted her as [the member of the group]. The task seemed [impossible to complete]. We found the guard [sleeping]. Co Cs Co Cs Co 6.1.5 ADVERBIAL Adverbials are a peripheral elements of the clause, which means they can be freely added or removed without disturbing the grammar of the clause. Adverbials can take various positions in the sentence, they can stand at the very beginning before the subject, they can take central position (mid-position) between the subject and the verb (these are typically adverbials of frequency), or they can stand at the end of a sentence. The number of adverbials in a sentence is fairly free. Typical adverbials are adverb and prepositional phrases. Based on the circumstances they relate to, we distinguish adverbials of: • time (Atime) /11 see you tomorrow. • place (Aplace) Meet me outside. • manner (Amanner) She kissed him sweetly. • frequency (Afrequency) They often argue. • degree (Adegree) She really hates travelling. When there are more adverbials in the sentence, the standard order is the adverbial of manner, then place, and then time (e.g. He was driving dangerously through the town last night.) More adverbials of place in one sentence are presented in the order from a smaller to larger (e.g. / took some great pictures in La Defense, Paris.). Similarly, when there are more adverbials of time to be mentioned, we tend to start with a shorter period and move towards a longer period of time (e.g. I'm having a skiing lesson at one on Friday.) Any deviation from this standard order suggests that the last element is stressed. 55 syntactic elements COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the kinds of adverbials in the following sentences. 1. She takes the boat to the mainland every day. 2. She moved slowly and spoke quietly. 3. She shops in several stores in town. 4. You have to get back before dark. 5. We visited them at their summer home. 0 ANSWERS Identify the kinds of adverbials in the following sentences. 1. She takes the boat [to the mainland] [every day]. 2. She moved [slowly] and spoke [quietly]. 3. She shops [in several stores in town]. 4. You have to get back [before dark]. 5. We visited them [at their summer home]. Aplace, Afrequency Amanner, Amanner Aplace Atime Aplace The final comprehension check of this chapter provides an exercise in which you can practise classification of all the syntactic elements. COMPREHENSION CHECK Identify the syntactic functions of the sentence elements. 1. [They] [heard] [high pitched cries] [in the middle of the night]. 2. [I] [don't like] [listening] [to him]. 3. [My parents] [are celebrating] [their silver wedding] [this month]. 4. [How often] [do] [you] [visit] [your parents] [in Kent]? 5. [Pretty bright] [the students] [seem] [this year]. 6. [Last night] [Mr Ford] [announced] [his resignation] [from the party]. 7. [They] [made] [him] [a member of their gang]. 8. [Luckily] [the weather] [was] [very nice] [that week]. 56 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika ANSWERS Identify the syntactic functions of the sentence elements. S V Od Atime 1. [They] [heard] [high pitched cries] [in the middle of the night]. S V Od Oprep 2. [I] [don't like] [listening] [to him]. S V Od Atime 3. [My parents] [are celebrating] [their silver wedding] [this month]. Afrequency V S V Od Aplace 4. [How often] [do] [you] [visit] [your parents] [in Kent]? Cs S V Atime 5. [Pretty bright] [the students] [seem] [this year]. Atime S V Od Oprep 6. [Last night] [Mr Ford] [announced] [his resignation] [from the party]. S V Od Co 7. [They] [made] [him] [a member of their gang]. Amanner S V Cs Atime 8. [Luckily] [the weather] [was] [very nice] [that week]. SUMMARY In the sixth chapter of the introductory course into grammar you learnt about the distinction between subject and predicate, and then you learnt to further divide the predicate into individual syntactic elements (verb, object, complement, adverbial). 57 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika LITERATURA Aarts, B. (2011). Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford: OUP. Aarts, B., Chalker, S., and Weiner, E. (2014). The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP. Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Leech, G. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Carter, R., and McCarthy, M . (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP. Dušková, L. (2012). Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Academia. 58 Markéta Johnová - Anglická gramatika SHRNUTÍ STUDIJNÍ OPORY Cílem této studijní opory bylo poskytnout čtenáři přehled o základních pravidlech a principech anglické gramatiky. Úvodní kapitola představila základní pojmy, jako jsou význam slova gramatika, rozdíl mezi preskriptivním a deskriptivním přístupem k mluvnici, termíny morfologie a syntax, všeobecnou strukturu jazyka, strukturu slov a skupin slov. Opora dále nabídla přehled všech anglických slovních druhů podle rozlišení content words a function words, přehled typů frází a větných členů. Cílem textu bylo poskytnout základ k dalšímu studiu anglické gramatiky. 59 PŘEHLED DOSTUPNÝCH IKON Čas potřebný ke studiu Klíčová slova mPrůvodce studiem <£> I Rychlý náhled Tutoriály K zapamatování Řešená úloha Kontrolní otázka | Odpovědi Samostatný úkol Pro zájemce - J H Cíle kapitoly El m Nezapomeňte na odpočinek <^f-1 Průvodce textem 2 I Shrnutí Definice Případová studie Věta Korespondenční úkol Otázky Další zdroje Úkol k zamyšlení 60 Název: Anglická gramatika Autor: Mgr. Markéta Johnová, Ph.D. Vydavatel: Slezská univerzita v Opavě Filozoficko-přírodovědecká fakulta v Opavě Určeno: studentům SU FPF Opava Počet stran: 61 Tato publikace neprošla jazykovou úpravou.